Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum

Cite this page: Barbara Tratsaert (ed.), “Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum”, Archiopedia / Αρχειοπαίδεια (2022-), p. 352 (revision #-), ISSN 2732-6012. DOI: To be assigned.

This is a compilation of descriptions and accounts by classical writers referring to the mining of precious minerals and stones.

The compilation will be regularly updated.

The reader must be sure to consult the latest version.

Introduction

The timeframe is the Roman imperial period; Herodotus (fourth century BC) is also included as his works were often quoted and referred to by later writers. The main authors are, in chronological order, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Pliny the Elder, Tacitus, Suetonius, Arrian and Photius. It seems that factual knowledge and descriptions of mining were reserved for the western provinces of the Roman Empire, while those for the eastern provinces had a more mythical character. Arrian states that some writers of his time were not so particular about what they wrote on the eastern provinces as, at that time, it was unlikely that people would travel there and witness the operations in these regions. Despite that, Diodorus Siculus and Strabo appear to have obtained a factual understanding of mining in Egypt and India. There is also the prevailing theory that classical writers believed that if the soil and fauna were fertile then by default there was gold. They did not understand the origin of gold in correct geological terms even though they seemed to comprehend that there were different types of stones and that (ground) water could pose serious danger. On only two occasions a deity is mentioned in relation to mining and/or refining gold – Hephaestus – though only Diodorus Siculus refers to him by this name. Pan or Min was the Ptolemaic god taken over by Roman miners in the Eastern Desert of Egypt, as well as the protector of travelers in the desert. However, survey and excavation reveal that the miners preferred to take their personal (household) gods with them when working at the mines. This is particularly visible at the imperial quarries Mons Claudianus, Mons Porphyrytes and Smaragdus Mons, in this desert. There were, of course, also mythical creatures assigned to mining, such as the gold-digging ants who ferociously hunted down those who tried to dig up ‘their gold’ (Herodotus, 3.102–05). Another well-known mythical story is that of the Argonauts searching for the Golden Fleece. Both Diodorus (4.40–54) and Strabo (11.4.8) present the story of Jason and the Argonauts as fact.

Mining in western Roman provinces	Mining in eastern Roman provinces	"Geography (fertile) as an indicator of the presence of gold
Factual	Factual
On alluvial gold: Strabo 3.3.4, 4.6.7 (panning gold), 11.2.19 (describes the use of skins/panning), Diodorus 5.27	On alluvial gold: Herodotus 5.101, Diodorus 3.45, Strabo, 15.1.57, Photius 59–66	Diodorus 3.45, Strabo, 3.2.8, 16.4.18
On primary deposits: Diodorus 5.36–38 (use of the Archimedean screw in Iberian mines), Strabo, 3.2.8, 3.2.9 (use of the Archimedean screw in Iberian mines)	On primary deposits: Herodotus, 6.46.47 (on mining an entire mountain to obtain auriferous primary deposits), Diodorus 2.36, 2.50 (nuggets), 3.12–14 (detailed description of an Egyptian mine)
Pliny, Naturalis Historia XXXIII.21 (mining of primary and secondary deposits)
!! Myths related to the prospection of gold !! Myths related to the prospection of gold
	Herodotus 3.102–105 (on gold-digging ants, stating he heard the story from a Persian man)	Herodotus 4.200 (Persia, the use of a bronze shield to find gold)
	Strabo 15.1.37/44/69 and 16.4.15 on gold-digging ants (quotes at least two other authors), Pliny Naturalis Historia XXXIII.21 (though states the story of gold-digging ants is untrue)	Diodorus 5.74, Hephaestus the inventor of refining gold, Pliny, Naturalis Historia XXXIII.4.12 (the only two references to a god in relation to gold mining)

Herodotus (7.112, Thracia), Diodorus (3.45) and Strabo (16.4.18, both on the Debae in Arabia) describe how indigenous population groups were inexperienced in mining their own gold and invited others to work their mines for them. But they were particular about who excavated their precious minerals. Herodotus (9.75) and Strabo (4.6.7) mention the attempts of outsiders (no names) attempting to confiscate mines and Strabo specifically refers to the Romans. Two classical authors mention on two occasions the greed of the Romans and their conflicts with the local population in certain parts of the Empire (Diodorus, 5.36–38, 5.46.1–4 and Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia XXXIII.21 and XXXVII.74). Strabo mentions the effects of Roman mining on local agriculture (4.6.7) and how it affected the price of gold (4.6.12).

Herodotus

Very little is known on Herodotus. It is thought he was born around 484 BC in Halicarnassus (Greek city in modern Turkey), lived in Athens and was a friend of the poet Sophocles. Herodotus was pro-Athenian in his writings and was well informed on their customs and way of life. He was one of the first colonists of the Thuria or Thurii, a city founded by the Athenians on the south coast of Italy. He travelled during and after his period of exile and compiled what he saw in The Histories, which consists of nine books.

Agatharchides of Knidos

Not much is known of this classical historian and his works were little read in his time. He was thought to be the protégé of two prominent political figures in Egypt during the first half of the second century BC. Cineas was a councillor of King Ptolemy VI, and Heracleides was a diplomat involved in negotiations to end the invasion of Antiochus IV in 169 BC. Both men had an influence on Agatharchides’ work in literature and scholarly thinking. His work On the Erythraean Sea was never finished as the political situation brought a premature end to his writing career.

Diodorus Siculus

Of Greek origin, Diodorus born in the first century BC and was a historian during the reigns of Julius Caesar (49–44 BC) and Augustus (30 BC–AD 14). He travelled parts of Europe and Asia and lived for a long time in Rome. His Bibliotheca Historica covers universal history, from mythic times to the beginning of Caesar’s Gallic Wars, and consisted of 40 books of which only 15 were preserved completely; the rest is only known from fragments. He copied Agatharchides of Knidos’ description of mining, which has been used many times by modern scholars to explain the organisation of mining settlements in Egypt and the East.

Strabo

A geographer from Pontus, Amasian, Strabo is thought to have been born in 64BC and died around AD 24. He lived during the reign of Augustus (30 BC–AD 14) and part of that of Tiberius (AD 14–37). His 43 books on Roman history were meant for the intelligent upper class and are now all lost. His Geography was written in 17 books, all of which are preserved except for book seven. His friend Aelius Gallus was the (first) Egyptian prefect in 24 BC.

Pliny the Elder

Gaius Plinius Secundus was born in AD 23 and died during the eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79. He studied law, held a military career in Germany and an administrative position in Transalpine Gaul (N Italy) and Spain under Vespasian (AD 69–79). On retirement during the reign of Nero, he re-entered public life and became procurator of Spain, a position he held until Vespasian won the principate (AD 69–69). He was the uncle of Pliny the Younger, who himself was a lawyer and documented the eruption of Vesuvius. Of his Naturalis Historia, only 37 books have been preserved which cover many topics; of interest are books 33–37 which deal with precious metals and mining techniques.

Tacitus

Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus, born around AD 56 or 57 to a family from the south of France or north of Italy (Cisalpine Gaul), may have survived the days of Trajan (AD 98–117) and part of the reign of Hadrian (AD 117–137). A member of the provincial upper class, he was a famous orator and senator and a friend and teacher of Pliny the Younger, and held the highest metropolitan position, governorship of the province of Anatolia (Asia). His works The Annals of Imperial Rome consisted of 10 books covering the period AD 14 to the reign of Nero, and were his last and greatest work, which, together with The Histories, (AD 14–96) were his only historical books.

Suetonius

Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, born around AD 75, came from Hippa Regius (now Algeria). He practised law and served in Bithynia Pontus (north Asia Minor) on the staff of Pliny the Younger in c. AD 110–12. Suetonius was a Roman knight (eques) and held a succession of posts at the imperial court under Trajan (AD 98–117) and Hadrian (AD 117–38). He was also a biographer and his book The Lives of the Caesars covers the lives of 12 Caesars from Julius (49–44 BC) to Domitian (AD 96) and is 97% complete.

Arrian

Arrian Flavius Arrianus Xenophon was probably born a few years before AD 90 in Nicomedia, a province of Bithynia, into a Greek family, though, like his father, he was a Roman citizen by birth, having likely received citizenship from Vespasian (AD 69–79). He was the pupil of the philosopher Epictetus and had a career in the imperial services, holding the position of chief magistrate in Rome and Athens, and governor of one of the provinces on the Roman frontier. Later he became an Athenian citizen and died at some point in AD 173–180. He is also known as the author of the Campaigns of Alexander (the Great), as well as of numerous books on history and philosophy, and of biographies.

Photius

Photius was a ninth-century Byzantine patriarch and classical scholar whose publication Bibliotheca, Codex 250, contains sections of Agatharchides’ On the Erythraean Sea copied almost verbatim. His version is known as the best copy of Agatharchides’ work on gold mining in the Eastern Desert of Egypt as he could still read much of it in its original form. The Bibliotheca is a compilation of 279 reviews of books from various authors, dated between the fifth and ninth centuries AD, though many of the books he refers to no longer exist.

Transcripts

Herodotus

Herodotus 1

Name-reference	Herodotus, 3.102–05
Modern reference	De Sélincourt 1959: 217–18; Rawlinson 1996: 270–71
Location of the mine	N India, neighbourhood of Caspatyrus in the country of Pactyica

Description-Interpretation: In the desert of India, Herodotus describes gold-digging ants ‘of great size, bigger than a fox though not as big as a dog’. The ants burrow underground and throw up sand in heaps; Herodotus compares them with ‘modern’ ants. The sand has a rich content of gold, which is what the Indians were after. But collecting the gold was not easy as it had to be done when the sun was at its highest and the ants had burrowed deep for shade and coolness. Otherwise the ants, which are extremely fast, would chase and attack the men collecting the gold.

Comments: Further in the text Herodotus admits that he has quoted this story from a Persian man, and even Herodotus seems to have queried its authenticity. Herodotus’ descriptions therefore have to be carefully considered; indeed, he became known as the ‘father of lies’, once it came to light that much of what he described came from local guides who were not always trustworthy. This still happens today when local guides tell tourists fabulous stories for a tip.

Strabo

Strabo 27

Name-reference	Strabo 16.4.5–20
Modern reference	Jones 1954b: 315–50
Location of the mine	Desert of Egypt

Description-Interpretation: Strabo quotes here the writings of Agatharchides on the Eastern Desert of Egypt, the various population groups and how they struggled to survive the harsh climate. He omits the detailed description on (Agatharchides’) gold mine but does refer to the use of soldiers to guard some mines. 16.4.6., ‘After the gulf, one comes to the island Ophiodes, so called from the fact in the case; but it was freed from the serpents by the king, both because of their destruction of the people who landed there and on account of the topazes found there.... There was an organisation of people who were appointed by the kings of Aegypt to keep guard over this stone and the collecting of it; and this organisation was supplied by them with provisions.’

Comments: Strabo, Diodorus and Photius have copied Agatharchides, though Strabo has more interest in the inbitants of the Eastern Desert than in the mining and quarry industry. His source for this information is Artemidorus of Ephesus as he did not have direct access to the original work of Agatharchides.

Tacitus

Name-reference	Tacitus Tiberius
Modern reference	Grant 1989: 209
Location of the mine	Spain/Iberia (1st century AD)

Description-Interpretation: The gold and copper mines owned by Sextus Marius were confiscated by Tiberius on the grounds of an allegation of incest with his daughter. Although the state confiscated the mine, Tiberius considered it as his property.

Comments: This act, in AD 33, has been considered the beginning of the confiscation of gold mines in the Roman Empire by the state (Imperial governmental policy, 4.1.1.). It has been queried by modern writers, who have suggested that the accusation was fabricated and that Tiberius may have had his eye on the revenue of the mine.

Suetonius

Name-reference	Suetonius Gaius (Caligula) 27
Modern reference	Graves 1989: 167
Location of the mine	–

Description-Interpretation: Emperor Caligula was so cruel that he would ‘brand many men of decent families and send them down the mines, or put them on the roads or throw them to the wild beasts.’

Comments: These types of comments and descriptions are the only sources of proof that not all miners (fossor) worked in the mines on a voluntary basis. In situ proof of their presence is often hard to find as their accommodations would have been hastily constructed, if they were given any at all. If they were housed elsewhere it would still be impossible to see the difference between the accommodation used by forced and free labour, as when the mine was abandoned the inhabitants took everything perishable with them and poorly built remains would have been destroyed. Simitthus (modern Chemtou, Tunesia) in Africa proconsularis is the only quarry settlement where remains of a ‘work’ camp have been identified. A stone building at the heart of this camp was identified as a penitentiary centre, an ergastulum. Coinage and pottery provide a construction date of c. AD 170, but it is thought to have been abandoned at the beginning of the third century AD. The building was preserved as it was re-used later as a ‘fabric’.

Arrian

Name-reference	Arrian 5.4
Modern reference	De Sélincourt 1971: 260
Location of the mine	India

Description-Interpretation: Arrian also describes the gold-digging ants of India and the gold-guarding griffons, but is not really convinced that they exist: ‘Queer things have been invented for diversion rather than as serious history, in the belief that none of the absurd stories they tell about India are likely to be brought to the test of truth.’ He further writes that Alexander and his men have debunked these stories and that India, in fact, has no gold, ‘except in a few cases where they themselves were guilty of invention’.

Comments: Herodotus (3.102–05), Pliny (Naturalis Historia XXXIII.21) and Strabo (15.1.37/44/69 and 16.5.15) all described the gold-digging ants with varying degrees of belief.

Photius

Name-reference	Photius book 5, 59–66
Modern reference	Meyer et al. 2003: 37–44; Burstein 1989: 57–68
Location of the mine	An unknown underground mine in the Eastern Desert of Egypt

Description-Interpretation:

59–61. Near the Erythraean Sea, the Nile, although it makes numerous meanders and bends, at that point turns sharply and makes a great deviation from the eastward course of its bends, and extends from the sea far inland so that the land between the waters – the salt and the drinkable – is compressed like a mass of clay. At this point at the aforementioned sea [Erythraean or Red Sea], there are found some of the so-called ‘noble rocks’, which contain abundant mineral deposits. In colour they are jet black but contain such great outcrops of quartz that everything else pales by comparison with them for brilliance. As for those who have been overwhelmed by extreme misfortune, these people the tyrannical government condemns to the bitterest slavery of the gold mines. Some suffer together with their wives and children and some apart from them.	Diodorus 3.12, similar description of the geology
	Diodorus 3.12, gives a slightly different description but to the same effect, with more details of the fate of the condemnati and their families
They [the miners] pursue their tasks in the mountains where the gold is found. They light wood fires on the stone outcrops, which are jagged and extremely hard, and crumble them with the heat. They break the fractured rock into little pieces with iron sledges. A technician, who sorts the ore, is in charge of the other workers. Whenever he points out veins to the miners, the whole task is then carried out by the miners, who are constrained by their misfortunes, in accordance with the following division of labour. Those who are the strongest and young smash the quartz-bearing rock with iron hammers, striking their blows not with skill but brute force. They also cut many galleries through the rock, not in a straight line, but in some places right above the gold-bearing ore and sometimes falling below, and again, turning to the left and sometimes twisting back and intersecting like the roots of trees. They excavate wearing lamps fastened to their foreheads, following a sort of white vein. They often force their bodies to conform (to the shape of the gallery) as they throw on the ground the pieces of rock, not according to their own decision and ability but under the supervision of an overseer, who never upbraids without also striking a blow.	Diodorus 3.12, fire setting and division of labour
	Diodorus 3.12, specialists
	Diodorus 3.12, hard manual labour and tools used in a similar description
	Diodorus 3.12, same description of the brutality of the overseer
62–63. Young boys, who go down in to the galleries excavated by these men, gather up laboriously the piles of rock thrown down the floor and carry it outside the entrance. From them the older men and many of the sick take the rock. These men bring it to men called ‘pounders’. They are men less than 30 years old and more vigorous in appearance. After receiving the fragments of rock, they pound them vigorously with iron pestles; and having worked the stone until no piece is larger than a vetch seed, they distribute them immediately to other workers. The next task, however, is that of women who have been led off in captivity with their husbands or parents. For several mills stand one after the other in a line and into these they cast the crushed rock. Three women, standing opposite one another at each handle and so scantily dressed that only their private parts are concealed, do the grinding; and they grind until the portion of rick given them has been reduced to the consistency of flour. All those subject to the harsh lot just described consider death more desirable than life.	Diodorus 3.13, same description of division of work but with more details on their miserable existence
	Diodorus 3.13, less detailed on the grinding of the gold
	This technique was probably for using saddle- shaped querns (found at Wadi Bakariya and Wadi Daghbag)
64–65. From these women, men called selangei receive the crushed ore. These men are technicians, capable of completing the king’s business. Their work is as follows:	Diodorus 3.14, describes them as ‘skilled workers’ but explains it differently
They throw the crushed quartz onto a flat board which has been polished smooth but is not level, having instead a slight incline. Then, while pouring on water, they rub the ore with their hands, at first gently, then more vigorously, whence, I think, the earthy part is dissolved and flows away in accordance with the slope of the table, but the heavy and solid part remains unmoved on the wood. After having repeatedly washed the rock with water, the selangeus picks it up with light and very porous sponges. When these are applied lightly to the quartz and worked briefly, the light and loose pieces become entangled in the interstices of the sponge. He takes these up and throws them away, but leaves behind on the board the heavy, glittering pieces he has separated out, since, because of the heaviness of their nature, they are difficult to move.	The washing table is similar to those found at Wadi Allaqi, though here the dust seems to be washed directly on its stone surface.
	Selangei is a technical term for a gold washer.
"65–66. After thus completely separating out the gold nuggets, the selangeus turns them over to the smelters. These take up the ore by set amount and weight and place it in a pottery vessel. Then, after adding in accordance with a fixed proportion a lump of lead, grains of salt and a little tin and barley bran, they put on a close-fitting lid, seal it all around and smelt it continuously in a kiln for five days and an equal number of nights. On the next day, after cooling the smelted ore slightly, they pour it into a vessel and find that of what was put in with the gold nothing remains, but of the gold there is a solid mass, albeit slightly reduced in size because of the dust.	Diodorus 3.14, has quoted the firing process almost word for word
The death of numerous men in the mines brings our exposition to the conclusion already stated, namely that, as its nature clearly demonstrates, the origin of gold is laborious, its preservation is uncertain, it is most zealously sought after, and its use lies between pleasure and plain. Further, the manner in which it is mined is extremely ancient. For the nature of the mines was discovered by the first rulers of the region, but their working was suspended when the Aithiopians, by whom people also say that the Memnoneia were built, invaded Egypt in force and garrisoned its cities for many years, and (again) during the supremacy of the Medes and Persians. Even in our time bronze chisels are found in the gold mines excavated by those rulers because the use of iron was not yet known at that time. Human bones in unbelievable numbers are also found since, as was likely to have happened, many cave-ins occurred in the unstable galleries with their brittle walls, given the great extent of the excavations and their reaching in their deepest sections the sea itself.	Diodorus 3.14, only briefly describes the hardships of mining
	Metal tools are rare at mining sites

Comments: Agatharchides’ account of the Eastern Desert of Egypt has been copied by Strabo (16.4.5–20, but Strabo had actually copied the information from Artemidorus of Ephesus), Diodorus (3.12–14) and Photius (59–66). Burstein states that although Photius is the least well-known writer he gives the most accurate copy of Agatharchidus’ work. Diodorus’ copies are often more prosaic than factual. Strabo’s version does not mention gold mines; he only refers briefly to the topaz mines and appeared to be more interested in the various population groups living in and close to the desert (Strabo, 16.4.5–20).

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