Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum

Cite this page: Barbara Tratsaert (ed.), “Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum”, Archiopedia / Αρχειοπαίδεια (2022-), p. 352 (revision #-), ISSN 2732-6012. DOI: To be assigned.

This is a compilation of descriptions and accounts by classical writers referring to the mining of precious minerals and stones.

The compilation will be regularly updated.

The reader must be sure to consult the latest version.

Introduction

The timeframe is the Roman imperial period; Herodotus (fourth century BC) is also included as his works were often quoted and referred to by later writers. The main authors are, in chronological order, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Pliny the Elder, Tacitus, Suetonius, Arrian and Photius. It seems that factual knowledge and descriptions of mining were reserved for the western provinces of the Roman Empire, while those for the eastern provinces had a more mythical character. Arrian states that some writers of his time were not so particular about what they wrote on the eastern provinces as, at that time, it was unlikely that people would travel there and witness the operations in these regions. Despite that, Diodorus Siculus and Strabo appear to have obtained a factual understanding of mining in Egypt and India. There is also the prevailing theory that classical writers believed that if the soil and fauna were fertile then by default there was gold. They did not understand the origin of gold in correct geological terms even though they seemed to comprehend that there were different types of stones and that (ground) water could pose serious danger.

Herodotus

Very little is known on Herodotus. It is thought he was born around 484 BC in Halicarnassus (Greek city in modern Turkey), lived in Athens and was a friend of the poet Sophocles. Herodotus was pro-Athenian in his writings and was well informed on their customs and way of life. He was one of the first colonists of the Thuria or Thurii, a city founded by the Athenians on the south coast of Italy. He travelled during and after his period of exile and compiled what he saw in The Histories, which consists of nine books.

Agatharchides of Knidos

Not much is known of this classical historian and his works were little read in his time. He was thought to be the protégé of two prominent political figures in Egypt during the first half of the second century BC. Cineas was a councillor of King Ptolemy VI, and Heracleides was a diplomat involved in negotiations to end the invasion of Antiochus IV in 169 BC. Both men had an influence on Agatharchidus’ work in literature and scholarly thinking. His work On the Erythraean Sea was never finished as the political situation brought a premature end to his writing career.

Diodorus Siculus

Of Greek origin, Diodorus born in the first century BC and was a historian during the reigns of Julius Caesar (49–44 BC) and Augustus (30 BC–AD 14). He travelled parts of Europe and Asia and lived for a long time in Rome. His Bibliotheca Historica covers universal history, from mythic times to the beginning of Caesar’s Gallic Wars, and consisted of 40 books of which only 15 were preserved completely; the rest is only known from fragments. He copied Agatharchidus of Cnidos’ description of mining, which has been used many times by modern scholars to explain the organisation of mining settlements in Egypt and the East.

Strabo

A geographer from Pontus, Amasian, Strabo is thought to have been born in 64BC and died around AD 24. He lived during the reign of Augustus (30 BC–AD 14) and part of that of Tiberius (AD 14–37). His 43 books on Roman history were meant for the intelligent upper class and are now all lost. His Geography was written in 17 books, all of which are preserved except for book seven. His friend Aelius Gallus was the (first) Egyptian prefect in 24 BC.

Pliny the Elder

Gaius Plinius Secundus was born in AD 23 and died during the eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79. He studied law, held a military career in Germany and an administrative position in Transalpine Gaul (N Italy) and Spain under Vespasian (AD 69–79). On retirement during the reign of Nero, he re-entered public life and became procurator of Spain, a position he held until Vespasian won the principate (AD 69–69). He was the uncle of Pliny the Younger, who himself was a lawyer and documented the eruption of Vesuvius. Of his Naturalis Historia, only 37 books have been preserved which cover many topics; of interest are books 33–37 which deal with precious metals and mining techniques.

Tacitus

Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus, born around AD 56 or 57 to a family from the south of France or north of Italy (Cisalpine Gaul), may have survived the days of Trajan (AD 98–117) and part of the reign of Hadrian (AD 117–137). A member of the provincial upper class, he was a famous orator and senator and a friend and teacher of Pliny the Younger, and held the highest metropolitan position, governorship of the province of Anatolia (Asia). His works The Annals of Imperial Rome consisted of 10 books covering the period AD 14 to the reign of Nero, and were his last and greatest work, which, together with The Histories, (AD 14–96) were his only historical books.

Suetonius

Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, born around AD 75, came from Hippa Regius (now Algeria). He practised law and served in Bithynia Pontus (north Asia Minor) on the staff of Pliny the Younger in c. AD 110–12. Suetonius was a Roman knight (eques) and held a succession of posts at the imperial court under Trajan (AD 98–117) and Hadrian (AD 117–38). He was also a biographer and his book The Lives of the Caesars covers the lives of 12 Caesars from Julius (49–44 BC) to Domitian (AD 96) and is 97% complete.

Arrian

Arrian Flavius Arrianus Xenophon was probably born a few years before AD 90 in Nicomedia, a province of Bithynia, into a Greek family, though, like his father, he was a Roman citizen by birth, having likely received citizenship from Vespasian (AD 69–79). He was the pupil of the philosopher Epictetus and had a career in the imperial services, holding the position of chief magistrate in Rome and Athens, and governor of one of the provinces on the Roman frontier. Later he became an Athenian citizen and died at some point in AD 173–180. He is also known as the author of the Campaigns of Alexander (the Great), as well as of numerous books on history and philosophy, and of biographies.

Photius

Photius was a ninth-century Byzantine patriarch and classical scholar whose publication Bibliotheca, Codex 250, contains sections of Agatharchides’ On the Erythraean Sea copied almost verbatim. His version is known as the best copy of Agatharchides’ work on gold mining in the Eastern Desert of Egypt as he could still read much of it in its original form. The Bibliotheca is a compilation of 279 reviews of books from various authors, dated between the fifth and ninth centuries AD, though many of the books he refers to no longer exist.

Transcripts

Herodotus

Herodotus 1

Name-reference	Herodotus, 3.102–05
Modern reference	De Sélincourt 1959: 217–18; Rawlinson 1996: 270–71
Location of the mine	N India, neighbourhood of Caspatyrus in the country of Pactyica

Description-Interpretation: In the desert of India, Herodotus describes gold-digging ants ‘of great size, bigger than a fox though not as big as a dog’. The ants burrow underground and throw up sand in heaps; Herodotus compares them with ‘modern’ ants. The sand has a rich content of gold, which is what the Indians were after. But collecting the gold was not easy as it had to be done when the sun was at its highest and the ants had burrowed deep for shade and coolness. Otherwise the ants, which are extremely fast, would chase and attack the men collecting the gold.

Comments: Further in the text Herodotus admits that he has quoted this story from a Persian man, and even Herodotus seems to have queried its authenticity. Herodotus’ descriptions therefore have to be carefully considered; indeed, he became known as the ‘father of lies’, once it came to light that much of what he described came from local guides who were not always trustworthy. This still happens today when local guides tell tourists fabulous stories for a tip.

Strabo

Strabo 27

Name-reference	Strabo 16.4.5–20
Modern reference	Jones 1954b: 315–50
Location of the mine	Desert of Egypt

Description-Interpretation: Strabo quotes here the writings of Agatharchides on the Eastern Desert of Egypt, the various population groups and how they struggled to survive the harsh climate. He omits the detailed description on (Agatharchides’) gold mine but does refer to the use of soldiers to guard some mines. 16.4.6., ‘After the gulf, one comes to the island Ophiodes, so called from the fact in the case; but it was freed from the serpents by the king, both because of their destruction of the people who landed there and on account of the topazes found there.... There was an organisation of people who were appointed by the kings of Aegypt to keep guard over this stone and the collecting of it; and this organisation was supplied by them with provisions.’

Comments: Strabo, Diodorus and Photius have copied Agatharchides, though Strabo has more interest in the inbitants of the Eastern Desert than in the mining and quarry industry. His source for this information is Artemidorus of Ephesus as he did not have direct access to the original work of Agatharchides.

Tacitus

Name-reference	Tacitus Tiberius
Modern reference	Grant 1989: 209
Location of the mine	Spain/Iberia (1st century AD)

Description-Interpretation: The gold and copper mines owned by Sextus Marius were confiscated by Tiberius on the grounds of an allegation of incest with his daughter. Although the state confiscated the mine, Tiberius considered it as his property.

Comments: This act, in AD 33, has been considered the beginning of the confiscation of gold mines in the Roman Empire by the state (Imperial governmental policy, 4.1.1.). It has been queried by modern writers, who have suggested that the accusation was fabricated and that Tiberius may have had his eye on the revenue of the mine.

Suetonius

Name-reference	Suetonius Gaius (Caligula) 27
Modern reference	Graves 1989: 167
Location of the mine	–

Description-Interpretation: Emperor Caligula was so cruel that he would ‘brand many men of decent families and send them down the mines, or put them on the roads or throw them to the wild beasts.’

Comments: These types of comments and descriptions are the only sources of proof that not all miners (fossor) worked in the mines on a voluntary basis. In situ proof of their presence is often hard to find as their accommodations would have been hastily constructed, if they were given any at all. If they were housed elsewhere it would still be impossible to see the difference between the accommodation used by forced and free labour, as when the mine was abandoned the inhabitants took everything perishable with them and poorly built remains would have been destroyed. Simitthus (modern Chemtou, Tunesia) in Africa proconsularis is the only quarry settlement where remains of a ‘work’ camp have been identified. A stone building at the heart of this camp was identified as a penitentiary centre, an ergastulum. Coinage and pottery provide a construction date of c. AD 170, but it is thought to have been abandoned at the beginning of the third century AD. The building was preserved as it was re-used later as a ‘fabric’.

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