Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum: Difference between revisions
Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum (view source)
Revision as of 17:43, 28 November 2022
, 1 year ago→Strabo: added the transcriptions found in Strabo's books, amended typos where spotted
No edit summary |
(→Strabo: added the transcriptions found in Strabo's books, amended typos where spotted) |
||
Line 300:
'''Description-Interpretation:''' ''Panchaea'' was inhabited by the Cretans who were brought there by Zeus when he still lived among men. The land had various gold, silver, copper, tin and iron mines but none of the minerals was allowed to leave the island. The gold was offered to the gods and in time the temples amassed great wealth: doorways of silver, gold and ivory, couches and tables for the gods in gold, and a large gold stele with hieroglyphs.
'''Comments:''' This is another example of the use of gold other than for financing wars. It is interesting to note that precious minerals and objects were not allowed to leave the region. Was this to prevent outsiders (or Rome) from
{| class="wikitable"
|'''<small>Name-reference</small>'''
Line 313:
'''Description-Interpretation:''' ''Hephaestus'' was the discoverer of every manner of working iron, copper, gold, silver, and everything that required fire for working. He is also acclaimed for having discovered other uses for fire which he gave to humans. Skilled workers therefore called their fire ''Hephaestus'' and offered him prayers and sacrifices.
'''Comments:''' Only classical writers clearly reference a deity associated with gold, and more precisely with the refining of this precious metal. Here he is mentioned by name, though Pliny (''Naturalis Historia'' XXXIII. 4.12) only refers to him as the ‘god of handicraft’. There is not much known on gods associated with mining as it seems that the miners worshipped their own house gods. Min and Pan are two names for the same god and are linked with miners and
----[[Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum#%20ftnref1|[1]]] Tregenza 2004b: 161–62.
{| class="wikitable"
Line 397:
===Strabo===
{| class="wikitable"
|'''<small>Name-reference</small>'''
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 3.2.8</small>
|-
|'''<small>Modern reference</small>'''
|<small>Jones 1949: 39-43, 219-220; Hamilton, Falconer 1912: 39-43</small>
|-
|'''<small>Location of the mine</small>'''
|<small>Iberia</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' ‘Of metals, in fact, the whole country of the Iberians is full, although it is not equally fertile and flourishing throughout, especially in those parts where the metal most abounds.’ He reports that the metals were only found in ‘small territories’ and near fertile land, and that they also seemed to occur in Turdetania and surrounding districts. Gold was dug from primary deposits ‘dug from the mines’, and alluvial ‘likewise collected’. He continues to describe that (1) gold derived from panning the rivers was washed in artificially constructed areas next to the same river. ‘The mines in the ''Cemmenus'' Mountains [mod. Cevennes] and on the side of the Pyrenees are superior but most people prefer those on this side [Iberian side]. Nuggets were found to be weighing ½ pound [''palae''] and needed little refining. Splitting open stones produced little lumps''.''’ And (2) when melting gold, and purifying by means of aluminous earth, its residue is electrum, a mixture of gold and silver. Gold is separated by ‘subjecting it to fire’ to create pure gold as the end product. ‘The fire was made with straw to give a soft flame, as coal causes gold to smelt too fast and could therefore evaporate.’
'''Comments:''' Jones translates it as chaff-free, while Hamilton and Falconer use the word ‘straw’. Diodorus (3.14) describes the use of lead, salt and tin, and barley bran to purify the gold dust. Panning river sediments is one of the oldest techniques used to collect secondary gold; it is in these deposits that nuggets are usually found. When gold requires melting it comes from primary deposits found imbedded in the vein.
Strabo describes both the primary (veins) and secondary deposits (sediments, alluvial gold, and eroding, outcropping veins). This description shows that mining was already well established in the region when the Romans took possession of the gold mines during the imperial period. The technique described for the collection, cleaning and refining of gold particles is still very much the same as used in the modern mining industry. Today, however, there are less secondary deposits, apart from newly discovered sites that were not accessible to the Romans, such as in Ireland and the New World many centuries later.[[Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum#%20ftn1|[1]]]
----[[Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum#%20ftnref1|[1]]] Lynch 2002. ''Mining in World History.''
{| class="wikitable"
|'''<small>Name-reference</small>'''
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 3.2.9</small>
|-
|'''<small>Modern reference</small>'''
|<small>Jones 1949: 220-222; Hamilton, Falconer 1912: 43-47</small>
|-
|'''<small>Location of the mine</small>'''
|<small>Iberia</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' Strabo warns his readers not to believe Poseidonius, who writes that gold can only be obtained from setting the forest and the soil on fire to make gold and silver ‘grow’. The fires melted the earth, which in turn ‘throw the metals up to the surface. These rich subterraneous regions should be regarded as the realms of Plutus.’ Strabo is not flattering Poseidonius when he writes: ‘The flourished style, in which he speaks on this subject, that you would fancy is turgid language, has been dug from a mine itself.’ Poseidonius, in turn, speaks belligerently of the mines of Attica, in ‘that they dug with as much energy as if they thought they could grub up Plutus himself.’ Of the miners of Turdetania, he writes that they ‘are in the habit of cutting virtuous and deep tunnels’ using the Archimedean screw (or the Egyptian screw as it was known as). ‘The Turdetani make a good profit while Attica at times does not.’
'''Comments''': Diodorus (5.37) also uses Attica for comparison purposes. The use of the Archimedean screw appears to have been well established in the mines prior to the Romans putting their mark on the mining industry. The silver mine of Laurium lies in the mining district of Attica, where extraction started around 1500BC, until about 102BC when a second revolt of the slave population brought it to an end. It appears that the deposits were still mined until the end of the first century AD though not in the same professional manner. This must have been around the period of Strabo’s comments.[[Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum#%20ftn1|[1]]]
----[[Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum#%20ftnref1|[1]]] Forbes 1966: 149.
{| class="wikitable"
|'''<small>Name-reference</small>'''
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 3.2.10</small>
|-
|'''<small>Modern reference</small>'''
|<small>Jones 1949: 222; Hamilton, Falconer 1912: 47</small>
|-
|'''<small>Location of the mine</small>'''
|<small>Iberia, second century BC</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': In this paragraph Strabo quotes the work of Polybius (second-century-BC historian), who described the silver mines of New Carthage. The mines lay 20 stadia from the city, and covered an area of 400 stadia; 40,000 miners were used, producing revenue of 15,000 ''drachmae'' per day. Breaking and washing the silver was the same process as for gold: the silver was washed through five sieves after which the dregs were smelted. Silver was no longer the property of the state at the time of Strabo and was mostly in private hands. The gold mines, however, ‘nearly all belong to the state’.
'''Comments''': There appears to have been not much difference between gold and silver processing; the washing of silver appears to have been similar to that of gold.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 3.3.4</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1949: 67</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Iberia</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': Strabo describes the river Tagus as carrying great quantities of gold dust (alluvial gold).
'''Comments:''' These lines, and more below, are comments in passing on the region’s resources.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 3.4.2</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1949: 81</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Coastal region of Iberia, Calpe</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': Another comment on the presence of gold and other mines in Iberia, in the coastal region.
'''Comments:''' See comment in Strabo, 3.3.4.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 4.1.13</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1949: 203 -209</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Pyrenees, north side of the ''Cemmenus''</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': The land of the ''Tectosages'' tribe was rich in gold, which was used for dedications to the gods. These god-fearing people threw their silver and gold in the sacred lakes, which the ‘the Romans, after they mastered the regions, sold for the public Treasury.’
'''Comments:''' This is a typical example of local practices and values interpreted by classical writers, followed by a brief view of Romans’ greed and how far they would go to obtain gold – in this case dredging it up from a sacred lake. This suggests that the Romans had no respect for local religion and beliefs where gold or gold objects were concerned.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 4.6.7</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1949: 304-305; Hamilton, Falconer 1912: 277-281</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Alps, Italy</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': ‘The country of the ''Salassi'' has gold mines also, which in former times, when the ''Salassi'' were powerful, they kept possession of, just as they were also masters of the passes [the country of the ''Salassi'' lies in a glen surrounded by mountains]. The ''Durias'' River was of the greatest aid to them in their mining – I mean, in washing the gold; and therefore, in making the water branch off to numerous places, they used to empty the common bed completely. But although this was helpful to the ''Salassi'' in their hunt for gold, it distressed the people who farmed the plains below them, because their country was deprived of irrigation; for, since its bed was on favourable ground higher up, the river could give the country water. And for these reasons both tribes [those in the plains and those in the mountain ranges] were continually at war with each other. But after the Romans got control, the ''Salassi'' were thrown out of their gold works and country; however, since they still held possession of the mountain, they sold water to the publicans who had contracted to work the gold mines, but on account of the greediness of the publicans the ''Salassi'' were always in disagreement with them too. And in this way it resulted that those Romans who from time to time wished to lead the armies and were sent to the regions in question were well provided with pretexts for war.’ (They were in the end overthrown by Augustus.)
'''Comments:''' This is an excellent example of using local resources, such as the river ''Durias'', for mining purposes, as well as of its effect on the local landscape. This is visible at Las Médulas, NW Spain, where mining filled in the river valley. In this case, the diversion of the river had negative results for local agriculture. Strabo also explains how the Romans tried to confiscate the mines but were driven away (at first) by the cunning of the ''Salassi''.[[Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum#%20ftn1|[1]]]
----[[Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum#%20ftnref1|[1]]] Rickard 1932: 440. At Las Médulas it created a new industry: fishing, as a large lake was created by damming the river and the filled-in river bed converted to agricultural land that is still in cultivation today.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 4.6.12</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1949: 310-311; Hamilton, Falconer 1912: 291-295</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>''Taurisci''</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': Strabo quotes Polybius again, this time when he describes the gold mines of Aquilea and those in the countries of the ''Noric Taurisci'', which were so rich ‘that if one scraped away the surface soil for a depth of only two feet, one found forthwith dug gold, and that the diggings were never deeper than 15 feet.’ He goes on to say that only part of the gold was pure, ‘in the sizes of a bean or ''lupin'', when an eighth has been boiled away, and that although the rest needed more smelting, the smelting was very profitable; and that two months after the Italiotes joined them in working the mine, the price of gold suddenly became a third less throughout the whole of Italy, but when the ''Taurisci'' learned this they cast out their fellow-workers and carried on a monopoly. Now, however, all the gold mines are under the control of the Romans. And here, too, just as in Iberia, in addition to the dug gold, gold dust is brought down by the rivers, but not, however, in such quantities as there.’
'''Comments:''' Here is another of only a few descriptions of the destructive influence of the Romans’ intrusive way of mining, using local resources and the economy. In 4.6.7 Strabo describes the effects mining had on agriculture (''Salassi''), talking about the effects industrial mining had on the price of gold. In both regions the Romans were driven away. His terminology shows that he is not specialised in discussing mining as he describes primary gold as ‘dug gold’, and secondary gold (alluvial) as ‘gold dust’.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 4.2.1</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1949: 215</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>''Aquitania''</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': Here Strabo comments on gold and other mines in the region of ''Aquitania''.
'''Comments:''' See comment on Strabo, 3.3.4.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 5.1.8</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1949: 319</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Italy, boundary of ''Aquilea'' and ''Heneti''</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': The river running along the boundary is used for transport, and ‘this region has places that are naturally well suited to gold washing and has also iron works.’
'''Comments:''' See comment on Strabo, 3.3.4. The question has to be put whether the iron works mentioned here were small workshops that provided tools for the miners. At El Castro de Orellán, Las Médulas (NW Spain), a small workshop/settlement near the outcrop of iron ore was identified, set up to provide the miners with tools to mine the gold.[[Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum#%20ftn1|[1]]]
----[[Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum#%20ftnref1|[1]]] Sánchez-Palencia, Fernández-Posse, Manzano, Orejas 1995. ''La zona arquelógica de Las Médulas''; Orejas, Sánchez-Palencia 2002: 591.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 5.1.12</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1949: 333</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>''Vercelli'' and Transalpine ''Celtis''</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': The region of ''Vercelli'' had profitable gold deposits. However, they were ‘not being worked here as seriously as before, probably because of other more profitable mines in Transalpine ''Celtis'' and ''Iberiai''.’
'''Comments:''' A reference to the increased knowledge of the mineral resources and the discovery of more economical auriferous deposits as the Romans conquer new regions.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 5.4.9</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1949: 457</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Italy, ''Pithecussaes''</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': The region was once settled by the Eretrian and Chalcidians, and the goldmines were very prosperous.
'''Comments:''' See comment on Strabo, 3.3.4.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 7 (34)</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1954a: 355</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Helveti, Germany</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': ''Crenides'', the city of Phillipi near ''Mount Panagaeum'' (mod. Pinnoni), had access to many goldmines.
'''Comments:''' Again, Strabo remarks on the gold deposits as part of a more detailed description of the region. See also the comments on Strabo, 3.4.2, and 5.1.12; his book 7 is only preserved in fragments and it is unclear whether there were references to gold elsewhere.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 11.2.19</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1944: 243</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Caucasus (above ''Dioscurias'')</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': The ''Soanes'' tribe worked on the alluvial gold that was ‘carried down by the mountain torrents [and] was obtained by perforated troughs and fleecy skins’, which, according to Strabo, is the origin of the Golden Fleece.
'''Comments:''' Skins were used to separate the gold from impurities during the washing process. The auriferous quartz was crushed in mills (Diodorus, 3.13) till a powder-like substance was obtained. This was then washed in several stages over skins stretched over a sloping surface. The sand washed away and the heavier, larger gold fragments were left stuck in the skin. The wet and now ‘auriferous skin’ was replaced by a new one and the process started again. Afterwards the saturated skins were either left to dry or burned in furnaces; when the skins were dry, the gold was collected from them directly, or from ashes after they were burned.
Another technique for washing gold was the use of a plant named ''gors'' (Pliny ''Naturalis Historia'' XXXIII.21). The plant would be positioned in channels or troughs, through which the auriferous gravel/dust was flushed with water. The heavier gold particles got stuck in the plant while the dust and sand washed away. Once the gors was saturated it was then removed from the channel and dried or burned, as was done with the skins. This is visible in the gold mines of Las Médulas, NW Spain, and Dolaucothi, S Wales, UK. The use of water in combination with skins or gors was mainly used in western Roman provinces as there was plenty of water and the plant was local. Diodorus (3.14) describes the use of sloping tables over which water was poured. The water collected in a basin at the bottom and was re-used until it ran clear. Unfortunately, he does not describe the material of the table top. Archaeological evidence of stone washing tables has been unearthed but if they had organic table tops these have long since disappeared.[[Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum#%20ftn1|[1]]] It has been suggested that this table top was made of either wood or had skins stretched over it.
----[[Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum#%20ftnref1|[1]]] Various sloping stone washing tables have been found in the Eastern Desert of Egypt. Whether the table top was covered by a skin or cloth is unclear as no traces have been preserved. Castiglione, Castiglione, Vercoutter 1995. ''Das Goldland der Pharaonen. Die Entdeckung von Berenike Pancrisia''.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 11.4.8</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1944: 231-291</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Caucasus (above ''Dioscurias'')</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': The same story is given by Diodorus Siculus, 4.40–54.
'''Comments:''' None.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 11.14.8</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1944: 329</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Iberia</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': Memnon was sent to the goldmines of ''Suspiritis'' near ''Catella'' by Alexander the Great.
'''Comments:''' It is unclear from this quote, and from further in the text, whether he was banished to the mines for a crime or for political reasons, or whether he was sent in an administrative or military capacity. Evidence has been uncovered that, during the Roman period, centurions were seconded to imperial quarries by their emperor to assist in their organization and administration.[[Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum#%20ftn1|[1]]]
----[[Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum#%20ftnref1|[1]]] Hirt 2010: 201, 332.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 13.1.23, 13.4.5, 14.5.</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1950: 45, 173, 369</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Astura, near Abydos</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': The territory of the ''Abydeni'' was a rich and independent city with goldmines, but the mines were by now exhausted and the city lay in ruins. A similar occurrence happened to the mines on ''Mount Tmolus'', near the ''Pactolus'' River. This river was once rich with alluvial gold dust, ‘whence, it is said arose the fame of the riches of Croesus and his forefathers. But [by Strabo’s time] the gold dust has given out.’
'''Comments:''' This is another brief reference on how mining districts became populated and depopulated in accordance with the presence (and availability) of gold.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 15.1.30</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1954b: 53</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>India</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' Strabo mentions a specialist, ‘Gorgus of Eretria the mining expert (''metalleutes'')’, who accompanied Alexander the Great to India. He writes that the Indians were inexperienced (compared to the Romans) in mining and smelting and were unaware of the value of their resources. The Indians appeared to be ‘handling the gold-mining industry in a simple manner.’
'''Comments:''' This is a unique reference to a skilled man, by name. Diodorus (3.12–14) mentions a geologist or surveyor (who pointed out where the miners had to dig) and a cook (who smelted the gold).
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 15.1.34</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1954b: 61</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>India, country of the ''Musicanus''</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' Strabo describes this country and maintains the people living there could reach over 130 years old. They had access to gold and silver mining but never used it.
'''Comments:''' This is probably a combination of myth (130+ years old) and fact (presence of gold mines). Are they related?
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 15.1.37, 44, 69; 16.4.15</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1954b: 65, 75-77, 121, 335</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>India</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' Strabo describes ants that mine gold, ‘imaginary creatures, sometimes called “antlion”, with the foreparts of a lion and the hind parts of an ant... smaller than a dog, larger than a fox.’ In 15.1.44 he quotes ''Nearchus'' on the description of their skin: ‘Their skin is like that of leopards.’ His quote from ''Megastenes'' is about how they lured the ants away with pieces of meat from wild beasts so the ants would not pursue the thieves and kill them (for taking the gold). He places the ants (and mines) in the Mountains of India on a plateau, approximately 3,000 stadia in circumference. These ants dug holes during the winter. The soil appears to have been auriferous and soft, and their holes looked like mole heaps. The gold dust was fairly pure and needed little smelting. But, states ''Megasthenes'', the ‘human thieves are unaware and sell the gold dust unwrought to the traders.’ In book 15.1.69, Strabo states that the ‘ants that dig gold have wings’, and in book 16.4.15 that ‘the ants are called lions and have their genitalia reversed; they are gold in colour though not as hairy as those in Arabia.’
'''Comments:''' The ants were first described by Herodotus in the fifth century BC, who reports hearing the story from a Persian man (3.102–05). Strabo quotes at least two other writers as sources for his description on gold-digging ants but does not make it clear if he believes them. Later classical writers appeared to be filtering many stories and only used what they believed were technical descriptions. However, over time these stories become more colourful, and the ants became fiercer in Strabo’s description. It is suggested by classical writers that these ants dug up the gold and then protected it by attacking the humans who tried to steal it from them, implying that the animal valued the ore. It seems that the ants were merely protecting their nest which happened to be dug in an alluvial deposit.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 15.1.57</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1954b: 97</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>India, Hyperborea</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' Strabo admits that he does not always believe ''Megastenes'', but is accurate when he describes the rivers coming from the mountains carrying alluvial gold. Part of this gold was used to pay taxes to the Roman Empire, as was also done in Iberia.
'''Comments:''' Later classical writers seemed to be aware that older writers were not always precise in their descriptions of certain regions. See also comments on Strabo, 3.3.4.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 16.4.18</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1954b: 345-349</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Arabia, Straits of the Arabian Gulf</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' Strabo describes the country of the ''Debae'', where the river carried gold dust but the local population were farmers and nomads who lacked the expertise to process alluvial gold. The neighbours, who appeared to be more civilised, lived in a temperate climate with enough rain to use water as a means to extract the gold (i.e. they had the knowledge to process the mineral). The gold found in the river sediment came in the shape of nuggets that did not require purification. The smallest had the size of a fruit stone; the medium nuggets were about the size of a meddler and the largest that of a walnut. The ''Debae'' made bracelets and necklaces by perforating the nuggets and combining them on a string with transparent stones. They sold these to their neighbours in exchange for three times the quantity of brass and twice the quantity of silver. Strabo states that the ''Debae'' considered silver ‘more important for the necessities of life.’
'''Comments:''' A similar description of the measurements of nuggets, and on the inexperience of the local population in mining (3.45), can be found in Diodorus (2.50) (also on the ''Debae''). This is further evidence that silver was used to barter for gold (Diodorus, 17.71).
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 16.4.19-20</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1954b: 349-351</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Arabia, Straits of the Arabian Gulf</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' The territories of the ''Sabaeans'' and ''Gerrhaeans'' were very rich in gold and silver ‘as their land is fertile.’ The gold was used to make objects, such as couches, tripods, bowls and houses (the ceilings were variegated with ivory and silver and set with precious stones).
'''Comments:''' Strabo is just one of many who describe the use of gold for personal and religious adornment. Other references are from Diodorus, 3.46–47 (on the ''Sabaeans''), Diodorus, 5.46.1–4 (on the ''Panchaea'', Iberia), Strabo, 4.1.13 (on the tribe of the ''Tectosages'', Pyrenees) and Strabo, 17.2.2-3 (on the ''Meroë'', Aethipia). This is another (potential) reference to the fact that gold can only be found in fertile soil.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 17.1.45</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1954b: 260-261</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Red Sea, Egyptian coast</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' On the isthmus, extending to the Red Sea near Berenice, mines were found holding emerald and other precious stones. This was discovered by the Arabians who dug deep subterranean passages.
'''Comments:''' This refers to the region around Berenice (Berenike), the Ptolemaic-Roman harbour along the Red Sea, SE Egypt (Lat 23˚54.62’N/Long 35˚28.42’E). Sidebotham, who is currently excavating Berenike and surveying its hinterland, refers to various gold and emerald mines along the desert roads that were either in use or newly opened at the time of the Roman occupation.[[Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum#%20ftn1|[1]]] What Strabo suggests with ‘subterranean passages’ is unclear, but it might refer to Sokari, a large sub-surface mine along the Berenike–Edfu road.[[Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum#%20ftn2|[2]]]
----[[Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum#%20ftnref1|[1]]] Sidebotham ''et al''. 2008: 19, 38 (fig 3.1), 216, 221–26.
[[Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum#%20ftnref2|[2]]] Tratsaert 2005: 7–20.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 17.2.2-3</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1954b: 143-147</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Island of Meroe, ''Aethiopa''</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' Strabo copied Diodorus’ description of copper, iron, gold and precious stones from mines on the island of ''Meroë'' (''Aethipia'') and described the local population as farmers and hunters. The region is mountainous and the Meroans had decorated their temple with a golden shrine.
'''Comments:''' See comment on Strabo, 3.3.4.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''<small>Name-reference</small>'''
|<small>Strabo,
|-
|'''<small>Modern reference</small>'''
|<small>Jones 1954b:
|-
|'''<small>Location of the mine</small>'''
|<small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' The ''Maurusians'' were nomads who ‘beautified their appearance by means of golden ornaments and cleaned their teeth.’
'''Comments:''' Strabo comments on the peculiar habits and attitudes of local populations towards gold. See also Strabo, 17.2.2–3.
===Pliny the Elder===
| |||