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|<small>Eastern Desert of Egypt</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' Diodorus is one of two classical writers to quote Agatharchidus of Cnidos’ (mid-second century BC writer) description of an underground gold mine in the Eastern Desert of Egypt.
12. ''At the extremity of Egypt and in the contiguous territory of both Arabia and Ethiopia, there lies a region which contains many large gold mines, where the gold is secured in great quantities with much suffering and at great expense.. For the earth is naturally black and contains seams and veins of a marble that is unusually white and in brilliancy surpasses everything else which shines brightly by its nature, and here the overseers of the labour in the mines recover the gold with the aid of a multitude of workers.'' '''Photius 59–62, similar description of the geology. ''' ''For the kings of Egypt gather together and condemn to the mining of the gold such as have been found guilty of some crime and captives of war.'' '''Photius 59–61, does not refer to a ‘king’ or any royalty.''' ''As well as those who have been accused unjustly and thrown into prison because of their anger. Not only such persons but occasionally all their relatives as well, by this means not only inflicting punishment upon those found guilty but also securing at the same time great revenues from their labours. Those who have been condemned in this way – and they are a great multitude and are all bound in chains – work at their task unceasingly both by day and night, enjoying no respite and being carefully cut off from any means of escape. Guards of foreign soldiers who speak a language different from theirs stand watch over them, so that not a man, either by conversation or by some contact of a friendly nature, is able to corrupt one of his keepers. '' '''Photius does not mention any type of guards. ''' ''The gold-bearing earth, which is hardest, they first burn with a hot fire. When they have crumbled it in this way they continue the working of it by hand; and the soft rock which can yield to moderate effort is crushed with a sledge by myriads of unfortunate wretches. The entire operations are in the charge of a skilled worker who distinguishes the stone and points it out to the labourers. Those who are assigned to this unfortunate task, the physically strongest, break the quartz rock with iron hammers, applying no skill to the task, but only force, and cutting tunnels through the stone, not in a straight line but wherever the seam of gleaming rock may lead. These men, working in darkness as they do because of the bending and winding of the passages, carry lamps bound on their foreheads. As much of the time they change the position of their bodies to follow the particular character of the stone, they throw the blocks, as they cut them out, on the ground; and at this task they labour without ceasing beneath the sternness and blows of an overseer. '' '''Photius 61, fire setting and division of labour; Photius 61, fire setting and division of labour; specialists, hard labour, sub-surface mining, querns; Photius 61, the brutality of the overseer is copied nearly word for word.'''
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14. ''In the last steps the skilled workmen receive the stone which has been ground to powder and take it off for its complete and final working; for they rub the marble which has been worked down upon a broad board which is slightly inclined, pouring water over it all the while; whereupon the earthy matter in it, melted away by the action of the water, runs down the inclined board, while that which contains the gold remains on the wood because of its weight.'' '''Photius 64–65, the only occurrence of this technical term, not mentioned by the other authors. More details on the process of washing gold. ''' ''And repeating this a number of times, they first of all rub it gently with their hands, and then lightly pressing it with sponges of loose texture they remove in this way whatever is porous and earthly, until there remains only the pure gold dust. Then at last other skilled workmen take what has been recovered and put it by fixed measure and weight into earthen jars, mixing with it a lump of lead proportionate to the mass, lumps of salt and a little tin, and adding thereto barley bran;'' ''thereupon they put on it a close-fitting lid, and smearing it over carefully with mud they bake it in a kiln for five successive days and as many nights; and at the end of this period, when they have let the jars cool off, of the other matter they find no remains in the jars, but the gold they recover in pure form, there being but little waste. This working of the gold, as it is carried on at the farthermost borders of Egypt, is effected through all the extensive labours here described; for Nature herself, in my opinion, makes it clear that whereas the production of gold is laborious, the guarding of it is difficult, the zest for it very great, and that its use is half-way between pleasure and pain. '' '''Photius 65–66, Diodorus follows Agatharchidus closely; Photius 66, is more prosaic and detailed in his description of the hardship of mining in general.'''
'''Comments:''' This description has been used by many modern scholars when discussing mining in Egypt during the classical period. It must be kept in mind that this reference dates back to the Ptolemaic era and can only be used to explain mining up to a certain extent. The labourers who appeared to be forced into working at the mine were ''condemnati'', criminals and prisoners of war. They were guarded by soldiers who were not indigenous to the country and who were purposefully chosen for their lack of understanding of the language of the workers. This, it can be argued, must have been based on the assumption that all miners will try to escape by starting friendships with the soldiers, or that the latter could be bribed, so hoped to halt that activity by placing people in a supervisory role with whom they could not communicate. ‘Guards of foreign soldiers who speak a language different from theirs stand watch over them, so that not a man, either by conversation or by some contact of a friendly nature, is able to corrupt one of his keepers’. Photius’ description, which is considered to be closer to Agatharchidus’ writings, does not mention any type of guard. Could this mean that Diodorus has noticed this setup for miners in his own time, almost one century later?
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38. ''In this section, Diodorus describes the use of slaves as mine labour and their wretched working conditions. ‘For no respite or pause is granted them in their labours but are compelled by the blows of overseers. Indeed death in their eyes is more to be desired than life’. He finishes this paragraph by saying that the Iberian mines were not newly discovered ores but had already been mined by the Carthaginians, who used their revenues to finance wars with the Romans, Silicians and Libyans.''
'''Comments:''' Gold, silver and copper are natural alloys but do not automatically occur in gold mines. Diodorus describes skilled and unskilled workers (36). The first reference to non-indigenous people who came to the region to mine the deposits is to Romans who conquered the region for its precious mineral. There are also references to other unskilled workers but who they were is unclear. Maybe they were the local population who did not have experience but came to work there when the Romans arrived and because local job opportunity was non-existent. Diodorus could also have been referring to slaves (38). Diodorus makes it clear that the Romans were well organised but were driven by greed – an unpleasant observation that he makes not for first time (46.1–4). Other classical writers such as Strabo (4.6.7) and Pliny the Elder (''Naturalis Historia'' XXXIII.21 and ''Naturalis Historia'' XXXVII.74) also suggest in their descriptions of mining districts in the Empire that the Romans had a high demand for gold. Whether this implies a hidden reproach or just an observation on the writers’ part is open to interpretation but it does explain the Romans’ intense way of working. For more on the Archimedean or Egyptian screw, as referred to in the text, see Bienkowski, who describes a screw kept at the Museum of Liverpool (37).
{| class="wikitable"
|'''<small>Name-reference</small>'''
Line 300 ⟶ 297:
'''Description-Interpretation:''' ''Panchaea'' was inhabited by the Cretans who were brought there by Zeus when he still lived among men. The land had various gold, silver, copper, tin and iron mines but none of the minerals was allowed to leave the island. The gold was offered to the gods and in time the temples amassed great wealth: doorways of silver, gold and ivory, couches and tables for the gods in gold, and a large gold stele with hieroglyphs.
'''Comments:''' This is another example of the use of gold other than for financing wars. It is interesting to note that precious minerals and objects were not allowed to leave the region. Was this to prevent outsiders (or Rome) from
{| class="wikitable"
|'''<small>Name-reference</small>'''
Line 313 ⟶ 310:
'''Description-Interpretation:''' ''Hephaestus'' was the discoverer of every manner of working iron, copper, gold, silver, and everything that required fire for working. He is also acclaimed for having discovered other uses for fire which he gave to humans. Skilled workers therefore called their fire ''Hephaestus'' and offered him prayers and sacrifices.
'''Comments:''' Only classical writers clearly reference a deity associated with gold, and more precisely with the refining of this precious metal. Here he is mentioned by name, though Pliny (''Naturalis Historia'' XXXIII. 4.12) only refers to him as the ‘god of handicraft’. There is not much known on gods associated with mining as it seems that the miners worshipped their own house gods. Min and Pan are two names for the same god and are linked with miners and
{| class="wikitable"
|'''<small>Name-reference</small>'''
Line 393 ⟶ 390:
'''Comments:''' Jones translates it as chaff-free, while Hamilton and Falconer use the word ‘straw’. Diodorus (3.14) describes the use of lead, salt and tin, and barley bran to purify the gold dust. Panning river sediments is one of the oldest techniques used to collect secondary gold; it is in these deposits that nuggets are usually found. When gold requires melting it comes from primary deposits found imbedded in the vein.
Strabo describes both the primary (veins) and secondary deposits (sediments, alluvial gold, and eroding, outcropping veins). This description shows that mining was already well established in the region when the Romans took possession of the gold mines during the imperial period. The technique described for the collection, cleaning and refining of gold particles is still very much the same as used in the modern mining industry. Today, however, there are less secondary deposits, apart from newly discovered sites that were not accessible to the Romans, such as in Ireland and the New World many centuries later.
===Strabo===
{| class="wikitable"
|'''<small>Name-reference</small>'''
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 3.2.8</small>
|-
|'''<small>Modern reference</small>'''
|<small>Jones 1949: 39-43, 219-220; Hamilton, Falconer 1912: 39-43</small>
|-
|'''<small>Location of the mine</small>'''
|<small>Iberia</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' ‘Of metals, in fact, the whole country of the Iberians is full, although it is not equally fertile and flourishing throughout, especially in those parts where the metal most abounds.’ He reports that the metals were only found in ‘small territories’ and near fertile land, and that they also seemed to occur in Turdetania and surrounding districts. Gold was dug from primary deposits ‘dug from the mines’, and alluvial ‘likewise collected’. He continues to describe that (1) gold derived from panning the rivers was washed in artificially constructed areas next to the same river. ‘The mines in the ''Cemmenus'' Mountains [mod. Cevennes] and on the side of the Pyrenees are superior but most people prefer those on this side [Iberian side]. Nuggets were found to be weighing ½ pound [''palae''] and needed little refining. Splitting open stones produced little lumps''.''’ And (2) when melting gold, and purifying by means of aluminous earth, its residue is electrum, a mixture of gold and silver. Gold is separated by ‘subjecting it to fire’ to create pure gold as the end product. ‘The fire was made with straw to give a soft flame, as coal causes gold to smelt too fast and could therefore evaporate.’
'''Comments:''' Jones translates it as chaff-free, while Hamilton and Falconer use the word ‘straw’. Diodorus (3.14) describes the use of lead, salt and tin, and barley bran to purify the gold dust. Panning river sediments is one of the oldest techniques used to collect secondary gold; it is in these deposits that nuggets are usually found. When gold requires melting it comes from primary deposits found imbedded in the vein.
Strabo describes both the primary (veins) and secondary deposits (sediments, alluvial gold, and eroding, outcropping veins). This description shows that mining was already well established in the region when the Romans took possession of the gold mines during the imperial period. The technique described for the collection, cleaning and refining of gold particles is still very much the same as used in the modern mining industry. Today, however, there are less secondary deposits, apart from newly discovered sites that were not accessible to the Romans, such as in Ireland and the New World many centuries later.<ref>Lynch 2002. ''Mining in World History.''</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|'''<small>Name-reference</small>'''
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 3.2.9</small>
|-
|'''<small>Modern reference</small>'''
|<small>Jones 1949: 220-222; Hamilton, Falconer 1912: 43-47</small>
|-
|'''<small>Location of the mine</small>'''
|<small>Iberia</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' Strabo warns his readers not to believe Poseidonius, who writes that gold can only be obtained from setting the forest and the soil on fire to make gold and silver ‘grow’. The fires melted the earth, which in turn ‘throw the metals up to the surface. These rich subterraneous regions should be regarded as the realms of Plutus.’ Strabo is not flattering Poseidonius when he writes: ‘The flourished style, in which he speaks on this subject, that you would fancy is turgid language, has been dug from a mine itself.’ Poseidonius, in turn, speaks belligerently of the mines of Attica, in ‘that they dug with as much energy as if they thought they could grub up Plutus himself.’ Of the miners of Turdetania, he writes that they ‘are in the habit of cutting virtuous and deep tunnels’ using the Archimedean screw (or the Egyptian screw as it was known as). ‘The Turdetani make a good profit while Attica at times does not.’
'''Comments''': Diodorus (5.37) also uses Attica for comparison purposes. The use of the Archimedean screw appears to have been well established in the mines prior to the Romans putting their mark on the mining industry. The silver mine of Laurium lies in the mining district of Attica, where extraction started around 1500BC, until about 102BC when a second revolt of the slave population brought it to an end. It appears that the deposits were still mined until the end of the first century AD though not in the same professional manner. This must have been around the period of Strabo’s comments.<ref>Forbes 1966: 149.</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|'''<small>Name-reference</small>'''
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 3.2.10</small>
|-
|'''<small>Modern reference</small>'''
|<small>Jones 1949: 222; Hamilton, Falconer 1912: 47</small>
|-
|'''<small>Location of the mine</small>'''
|<small>Iberia, second century BC</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': In this paragraph Strabo quotes the work of Polybius (second-century-BC historian), who described the silver mines of New Carthage. The mines lay 20 stadia from the city, and covered an area of 400 stadia; 40,000 miners were used, producing revenue of 15,000 ''drachmae'' per day. Breaking and washing the silver was the same process as for gold: the silver was washed through five sieves after which the dregs were smelted. Silver was no longer the property of the state at the time of Strabo and was mostly in private hands. The gold mines, however, ‘nearly all belong to the state’.
'''Comments''': There appears to have been not much difference between gold and silver processing; the washing of silver appears to have been similar to that of gold.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 3.3.4</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1949: 67</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Iberia</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': Strabo describes the river Tagus as carrying great quantities of gold dust (alluvial gold).
'''Comments:''' These lines, and more below, are comments in passing on the region’s resources.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 3.4.2</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1949: 81</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Coastal region of Iberia, Calpe</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': Another comment on the presence of gold and other mines in Iberia, in the coastal region.
'''Comments:''' See comment in Strabo, 3.3.4.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 4.1.13</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1949: 203 -209</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Pyrenees, north side of the ''Cemmenus''</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': The land of the ''Tectosages'' tribe was rich in gold, which was used for dedications to the gods. These god-fearing people threw their silver and gold in the sacred lakes, which the ‘the Romans, after they mastered the regions, sold for the public Treasury.’
'''Comments:''' This is a typical example of local practices and values interpreted by classical writers, followed by a brief view of Romans’ greed and how far they would go to obtain gold – in this case dredging it up from a sacred lake. This suggests that the Romans had no respect for local religion and beliefs where gold or gold objects were concerned.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 4.6.7</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1949: 304-305; Hamilton, Falconer 1912: 277-281</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Alps, Italy</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': ‘The country of the ''Salassi'' has gold mines also, which in former times, when the ''Salassi'' were powerful, they kept possession of, just as they were also masters of the passes [the country of the ''Salassi'' lies in a glen surrounded by mountains]. The ''Durias'' River was of the greatest aid to them in their mining – I mean, in washing the gold; and therefore, in making the water branch off to numerous places, they used to empty the common bed completely. But although this was helpful to the ''Salassi'' in their hunt for gold, it distressed the people who farmed the plains below them, because their country was deprived of irrigation; for, since its bed was on favourable ground higher up, the river could give the country water. And for these reasons both tribes [those in the plains and those in the mountain ranges] were continually at war with each other. But after the Romans got control, the ''Salassi'' were thrown out of their gold works and country; however, since they still held possession of the mountain, they sold water to the publicans who had contracted to work the gold mines, but on account of the greediness of the publicans the ''Salassi'' were always in disagreement with them too. And in this way it resulted that those Romans who from time to time wished to lead the armies and were sent to the regions in question were well provided with pretexts for war.’ (They were in the end overthrown by Augustus.)
'''Comments:''' This is an excellent example of using local resources, such as the river ''Durias'', for mining purposes, as well as of its effect on the local landscape. This is visible at Las Médulas, NW Spain, where mining filled in the river valley. In this case, the diversion of the river had negative results for local agriculture. Strabo also explains how the Romans tried to confiscate the mines but were driven away (at first) by the cunning of the ''Salassi''.<ref>Rickard 1932: 440. At Las Médulas it created a new industry: fishing, as a large lake was created by damming the river and the filled-in river bed converted to agricultural land that is still in cultivation today.</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 4.6.12</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1949: 310-311; Hamilton, Falconer 1912: 291-295</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>''Taurisci''</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': Strabo quotes Polybius again, this time when he describes the gold mines of Aquilea and those in the countries of the ''Noric Taurisci'', which were so rich ‘that if one scraped away the surface soil for a depth of only two feet, one found forthwith dug gold, and that the diggings were never deeper than 15 feet.’ He goes on to say that only part of the gold was pure, ‘in the sizes of a bean or ''lupin'', when an eighth has been boiled away, and that although the rest needed more smelting, the smelting was very profitable; and that two months after the Italiotes joined them in working the mine, the price of gold suddenly became a third less throughout the whole of Italy, but when the ''Taurisci'' learned this they cast out their fellow-workers and carried on a monopoly. Now, however, all the gold mines are under the control of the Romans. And here, too, just as in Iberia, in addition to the dug gold, gold dust is brought down by the rivers, but not, however, in such quantities as there.’
'''Comments:''' Here is another of only a few descriptions of the destructive influence of the Romans’ intrusive way of mining, using local resources and the economy. In 4.6.7 Strabo describes the effects mining had on agriculture (''Salassi''), talking about the effects industrial mining had on the price of gold. In both regions the Romans were driven away. His terminology shows that he is not specialised in discussing mining as he describes primary gold as ‘dug gold’, and secondary gold (alluvial) as ‘gold dust’.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 4.2.1</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1949: 215</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>''Aquitania''</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': Here Strabo comments on gold and other mines in the region of ''Aquitania''.
'''Comments:''' See comment on Strabo, 3.3.4.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 5.1.8</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1949: 319</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Italy, boundary of ''Aquilea'' and ''Heneti''</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': The river running along the boundary is used for transport, and ‘this region has places that are naturally well suited to gold washing and has also iron works.’
'''Comments:''' See comment on Strabo, 3.3.4. The question has to be put whether the iron works mentioned here were small workshops that provided tools for the miners. At El Castro de Orellán, Las Médulas (NW Spain), a small workshop/settlement near the outcrop of iron ore was identified, set up to provide the miners with tools to mine the gold.<ref>Sánchez-Palencia, Fernández-Posse, Manzano, Orejas 1995. ''La zona arquelógica de Las Médulas''; Orejas, Sánchez-Palencia 2002: 591.</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 5.1.12</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1949: 333</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>''Vercelli'' and Transalpine ''Celtis''</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': The region of ''Vercelli'' had profitable gold deposits. However, they were ‘not being worked here as seriously as before, probably because of other more profitable mines in Transalpine ''Celtis'' and ''Iberiai''.’
'''Comments:''' A reference to the increased knowledge of the mineral resources and the discovery of more economical auriferous deposits as the Romans conquer new regions.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 5.4.9</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1949: 457</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Italy, ''Pithecussaes''</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': The region was once settled by the Eretrian and Chalcidians, and the goldmines were very prosperous.
'''Comments:''' See comment on Strabo, 3.3.4.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 7 (34)</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1954a: 355</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Helveti, Germany</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': ''Crenides'', the city of Phillipi near ''Mount Panagaeum'' (mod. Pinnoni), had access to many goldmines.
'''Comments:''' Again, Strabo remarks on the gold deposits as part of a more detailed description of the region. See also the comments on Strabo, 3.4.2, and 5.1.12; his book 7 is only preserved in fragments and it is unclear whether there were references to gold elsewhere.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 11.2.19</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1944: 243</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Caucasus (above ''Dioscurias'')</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': The ''Soanes'' tribe worked on the alluvial gold that was ‘carried down by the mountain torrents [and] was obtained by perforated troughs and fleecy skins’, which, according to Strabo, is the origin of the Golden Fleece.
'''Comments:''' Skins were used to separate the gold from impurities during the washing process. The auriferous quartz was crushed in mills (Diodorus, 3.13) till a powder-like substance was obtained. This was then washed in several stages over skins stretched over a sloping surface. The sand washed away and the heavier, larger gold fragments were left stuck in the skin. The wet and now ‘auriferous skin’ was replaced by a new one and the process started again. Afterwards the saturated skins were either left to dry or burned in furnaces; when the skins were dry, the gold was collected from them directly, or from ashes after they were burned.
Another technique for washing gold was the use of a plant named ''gors'' (Pliny ''Naturalis Historia'' XXXIII.21). The plant would be positioned in channels or troughs, through which the auriferous gravel/dust was flushed with water. The heavier gold particles got stuck in the plant while the dust and sand washed away. Once the gors was saturated it was then removed from the channel and dried or burned, as was done with the skins. This is visible in the gold mines of Las Médulas, NW Spain, and Dolaucothi, S Wales, UK. The use of water in combination with skins or gors was mainly used in western Roman provinces as there was plenty of water and the plant was local. Diodorus (3.14) describes the use of sloping tables over which water was poured. The water collected in a basin at the bottom and was re-used until it ran clear. Unfortunately, he does not describe the material of the table top. Archaeological evidence of stone washing tables has been unearthed but if they had organic table tops these have long since disappeared.<ref>Various sloping stone washing tables have been found in the Eastern Desert of Egypt. Whether the table top was covered by a skin or cloth is unclear as no traces have been preserved. Castiglione, Castiglione, Vercoutter 1995. ''Das Goldland der Pharaonen. Die Entdeckung von Berenike Pancrisia''.</ref> It has been suggested that this table top was made of either wood or had skins stretched over it.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 11.4.8</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1944: 231-291</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Caucasus (above ''Dioscurias'')</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': The same story is given by Diodorus Siculus, 4.40–54.
'''Comments:''' None.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 11.14.8</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1944: 329</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Iberia</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': Memnon was sent to the goldmines of ''Suspiritis'' near ''Catella'' by Alexander the Great.
'''Comments:''' It is unclear from this quote, and from further in the text, whether he was banished to the mines for a crime or for political reasons, or whether he was sent in an administrative or military capacity. Evidence has been uncovered that, during the Roman period, centurions were seconded to imperial quarries by their emperor to assist in their organization and administration.<ref>Hirt 2010: 201, 332.</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 13.1.23, 13.4.5, 14.5.</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1950: 45, 173, 369</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Astura, near Abydos</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation''': The territory of the ''Abydeni'' was a rich and independent city with goldmines, but the mines were by now exhausted and the city lay in ruins. A similar occurrence happened to the mines on ''Mount Tmolus'', near the ''Pactolus'' River. This river was once rich with alluvial gold dust, ‘whence, it is said arose the fame of the riches of Croesus and his forefathers. But [by Strabo’s time] the gold dust has given out.’
'''Comments:''' This is another brief reference on how mining districts became populated and depopulated in accordance with the presence (and availability) of gold.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 15.1.30</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1954b: 53</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>India</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' Strabo mentions a specialist, ‘Gorgus of Eretria the mining expert (''metalleutes'')’, who accompanied Alexander the Great to India. He writes that the Indians were inexperienced (compared to the Romans) in mining and smelting and were unaware of the value of their resources. The Indians appeared to be ‘handling the gold-mining industry in a simple manner.’
'''Comments:''' This is a unique reference to a skilled man, by name. Diodorus (3.12–14) mentions a geologist or surveyor (who pointed out where the miners had to dig) and a cook (who smelted the gold).
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 15.1.34</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1954b: 61</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>India, country of the ''Musicanus''</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' Strabo describes this country and maintains the people living there could reach over 130 years old. They had access to gold and silver mining but never used it.
'''Comments:''' This is probably a combination of myth (130+ years old) and fact (presence of gold mines). Are they related?
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 15.1.37, 44, 69; 16.4.15</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1954b: 65, 75-77, 121, 335</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>India</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' Strabo describes ants that mine gold, ‘imaginary creatures, sometimes called “antlion”, with the foreparts of a lion and the hind parts of an ant... smaller than a dog, larger than a fox.’ In 15.1.44 he quotes ''Nearchus'' on the description of their skin: ‘Their skin is like that of leopards.’ His quote from ''Megastenes'' is about how they lured the ants away with pieces of meat from wild beasts so the ants would not pursue the thieves and kill them (for taking the gold). He places the ants (and mines) in the Mountains of India on a plateau, approximately 3,000 stadia in circumference. These ants dug holes during the winter. The soil appears to have been auriferous and soft, and their holes looked like mole heaps. The gold dust was fairly pure and needed little smelting. But, states ''Megasthenes'', the ‘human thieves are unaware and sell the gold dust unwrought to the traders.’ In book 15.1.69, Strabo states that the ‘ants that dig gold have wings’, and in book 16.4.15 that ‘the ants are called lions and have their genitalia reversed; they are gold in colour though not as hairy as those in Arabia.’
'''Comments:''' The ants were first described by Herodotus in the fifth century BC, who reports hearing the story from a Persian man (3.102–05). Strabo quotes at least two other writers as sources for his description on gold-digging ants but does not make it clear if he believes them. Later classical writers appeared to be filtering many stories and only used what they believed were technical descriptions. However, over time these stories become more colourful, and the ants became fiercer in Strabo’s description. It is suggested by classical writers that these ants dug up the gold and then protected it by attacking the humans who tried to steal it from them, implying that the animal valued the ore. It seems that the ants were merely protecting their nest which happened to be dug in an alluvial deposit.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 15.1.57</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1954b: 97</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>India, Hyperborea</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' Strabo admits that he does not always believe ''Megastenes'', but is accurate when he describes the rivers coming from the mountains carrying alluvial gold. Part of this gold was used to pay taxes to the Roman Empire, as was also done in Iberia.
'''Comments:''' Later classical writers seemed to be aware that older writers were not always precise in their descriptions of certain regions. See also comments on Strabo, 3.3.4.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 16.4.18</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1954b: 345-349</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Arabia, Straits of the Arabian Gulf</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' Strabo describes the country of the ''Debae'', where the river carried gold dust but the local population were farmers and nomads who lacked the expertise to process alluvial gold. The neighbours, who appeared to be more civilised, lived in a temperate climate with enough rain to use water as a means to extract the gold (i.e. they had the knowledge to process the mineral). The gold found in the river sediment came in the shape of nuggets that did not require purification. The smallest had the size of a fruit stone; the medium nuggets were about the size of a meddler and the largest that of a walnut. The ''Debae'' made bracelets and necklaces by perforating the nuggets and combining them on a string with transparent stones. They sold these to their neighbours in exchange for three times the quantity of brass and twice the quantity of silver. Strabo states that the ''Debae'' considered silver ‘more important for the necessities of life.’
'''Comments:''' A similar description of the measurements of nuggets, and on the inexperience of the local population in mining (3.45), can be found in Diodorus (2.50) (also on the ''Debae''). This is further evidence that silver was used to barter for gold (Diodorus, 17.71).
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 16.4.19-20</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1954b: 349-351</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Arabia, Straits of the Arabian Gulf</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' The territories of the ''Sabaeans'' and ''Gerrhaeans'' were very rich in gold and silver ‘as their land is fertile.’ The gold was used to make objects, such as couches, tripods, bowls and houses (the ceilings were variegated with ivory and silver and set with precious stones).
'''Comments:''' Strabo is just one of many who describe the use of gold for personal and religious adornment. Other references are from Diodorus, 3.46–47 (on the ''Sabaeans''), Diodorus, 5.46.1–4 (on the ''Panchaea'', Iberia), Strabo, 4.1.13 (on the tribe of the ''Tectosages'', Pyrenees) and Strabo, 17.2.2-3 (on the ''Meroë'', Aethipia). This is another (potential) reference to the fact that gold can only be found in fertile soil.
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 17.1.45</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1954b: 260-261</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Red Sea, Egyptian coast</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' On the isthmus, extending to the Red Sea near Berenice, mines were found holding emerald and other precious stones. This was discovered by the Arabians who dug deep subterranean passages.
'''Comments:''' This refers to the region around Berenice (Berenike), the Ptolemaic-Roman harbour along the Red Sea, SE Egypt (Lat 23˚54.62’N/Long 35˚28.42’E). Sidebotham, who is currently excavating Berenike and surveying its hinterland, refers to various gold and emerald mines along the desert roads that were either in use or newly opened at the time of the Roman occupation.<ref>Sidebotham ''et al''. 2008: 19, 38 (fig 3.1), 216, 221–26.</ref> What Strabo suggests with ‘subterranean passages’ is unclear, but it might refer to Sokari, a large sub-surface mine along the Berenike–Edfu road.<ref>Tratsaert 2005: 7–20.</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|<small>'''Name-reference'''</small>
|<small>Strabo, ''Geography'', 17.2.2-3</small>
|-
|<small>'''Modern reference'''</small>
|<small>Jones 1954b: 143-147</small>
|-
|<small>'''Location of the mine'''</small>
|<small>Island of Meroe, ''Aethiopa''</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' Strabo copied Diodorus’ description of copper, iron, gold and precious stones from mines on the island of ''Meroë'' (''Aethipia'') and described the local population as farmers and hunters. The region is mountainous and the Meroans had decorated their temple with a golden shrine.
'''Comments:''' See comment on Strabo, 3.3.4.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''<small>Name-reference</small>'''
|<small>Strabo,
|-
|'''<small>Modern reference</small>'''
|<small>Jones 1954b:
|-
|'''<small>Location of the mine</small>'''
|<small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' The ''Maurusians'' were nomads who ‘beautified their appearance by means of golden ornaments and cleaned their teeth.’
'''Comments:''' Strabo comments on the peculiar habits and attitudes of local populations towards gold. See also Strabo, 17.2.2–3.
===Pliny the Elder===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''<small>Name-reference</small>'''
|<small>Pliny the Elder, ''Naturalis Historia'' III.3, IV.20</small>
|-
|'''<small>Modern reference</small>'''
|<small>Rackham 1947: 25, 207</small>
|-
|'''<small>Location of the mine</small>'''
|<small>Hither Spain, nearly the entirety of Spain</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' Pliny maintained that ‘the whole district from the Pyrenees onwards’ – nearly the whole of Spain – contained gold, iron, lead, copper and silver mines.
'''Comments:''' Pliny was procurator on the Iberian Peninsula. See also Diodorus, 5.36-38, and Strabo, 3.2.8, 3.2.10, 3.3.4, 11.14.8.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''<small>Name-reference</small>'''
|<small>Pliny the Elder, ''Naturalis Historia'' VI.12</small>
|-
|'''<small>Modern reference</small>'''
|<small>Rackham 1947: 361</small>
|-
|'''<small>Location of the mine</small>'''
|<small>Caucassus Pass, among the Gurdinian Mountaines</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' Pliny describes this region as ‘beyond the gates of the Caucassus’. He states that the gold mines were worked by the ''Valli'' and the ''Suari'' and that the region was ‘one of the most famous in the world’.
'''Comments:''' Pliny often discusses gold and other mines while describing the landscape of the regions he has visited.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''<small>Name-reference</small>'''
|<small>Pliny the Elder, ''Naturalis Historia'' VI.22</small>
|-
|'''<small>Modern reference</small>'''
|<small>Rackham 1947: 589</small>
|-
|'''<small>Location of the mine</small>'''
|<small>India, Ganges and adjacent regions</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' The country of the ''Dardae'', ''Setae'', produced gold in great quantities as well as silver.
'''Comments:''' Here again, Pliny refers to the presence of gold and other mines while describing the area. The fact that silver is still being mentioned indicates that even with gold in circulation as currency silver retained a certain (monetary) value.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''<small>Name-reference</small>'''
|<small>Pliny the Elder, ''Naturalis Historia'' VI.23</small>
|-
|'''<small>Modern reference</small>'''
|<small>Rackham 1947: 395</small>
|-
|'''<small>Location of the mine</small>'''
|<small>India, beyond the Indus</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' The ''Narae'' on the other side of the Capitalia Range (highest mountain in India) also have gold and silver mines.
'''Comments:''' See comment on Pliny, ''Naturalis Historia'' VI.22.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''<small>Name-reference</small>'''
|<small>Pliny the Elder, ''Naturalis Historia'' VI.24</small>
|-
|'''<small>Modern reference</small>'''
|<small>Rackham 1947: 399, 405</small>
|-
|'''<small>Location of the mine</small>'''
|<small>Indian Islands, ''Chyse'' and ''Argyre'' at the mouth of the Indus</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' The popular name for the inhabitants of these islands, according to Pliny, was ‘Aborgines’. They had gold and silver mines, though these were rivalled by Ceylon which had more gold and larger pearls.
'''Comments:''' See comment on Pliny ''Naturalis Historia'' VI.22; he now quotes ''Megasthenes''.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''<small>Name-reference</small>'''
|<small>Pliny the Elder, ''Naturalis Historia'' VI.24</small>
|-
|'''<small>Modern reference</small>'''
|<small>Rackham 1947: 399, 405</small>
|-
|'''<small>Location of the mine</small>'''
|<small>Indian Islands, ''Chyse'' and ''Argyre'' at the mouth of the Indus</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' Pliny makes it clear this quote comes from ''Onesicritus’'' travel accounts. In a passing comment made during the voyage of ''Nearchus'' and ''Onesicritus'' from India to ''Faristan'' with Alexander’s fleet, he mentions that the ''Carmanita'' River ''Hyctanis'' produces [alluvial] gold.
'''Comments:''' See comment on Pliny ''Naturalis Historia'' VI.22.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''<small>Name-reference</small>'''
|<small>Pliny the Elder, ''Naturalis Historia'' VI.32</small>
|-
|'''<small>Modern reference</small>'''
|<small>Rackham 1947: 459-461</small>
|-
|'''<small>Location of the mine</small>'''
|<small>Persian Gulf, Arabian side (first century BC)</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' Pliny describes Arabia at the time when ''Aelius Gallus'' (AD24) was prefect of Egypt, including the people, animals and life of the nomads (dietary and wine production). He also mentions the ''Sabari'', who were wealthy thanks to their thick fertile forest, goldmines, rich agriculture, honey and wax. They were rich because they ‘sell their produce to Rome and Parthia but do not buy anything in return’.
'''Comments:''' See comment on Pliny ''Naturalis Historia'' VI.22. It appears that the Sabari were well aware of the high demand of Rome for gold, but had different material needs themselves.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''<small>Name-reference</small>'''
|<small>Pliny the Elder, ''Naturalis Historia'' VI.34</small>
|-
|'''<small>Modern reference</small>'''
|<small>Rackham 1947: 465</small>
|-
|'''<small>Location of the mine</small>'''
|<small>Egypt, Nubia (N Sudan)</small>
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' Here Pliny talks about the Troglodytes of Egypt and the gold region of Wadi Allaqi (S Egypt/N Sudan). There are two Berenices, Berenice-All-Golden in the locality of Wadi Allaqi (N Sudan), and Berenice (S Egypt), a Ptolemaic-Roman harbour along the Red Sea coast.
'''Comments:''' The region of Wadi Allaqi is well known for its gold-mining settlements. The deposits have been mined since prehistoric times until well into the Arab occupation of Egypt. The region has been studied by many modern scientists.<ref>Castiglioni, Castiglioni, Vercoutter 1995. ''Das Goldland der Pharaonen. Die Entdeckung von Berenike Pancrisia''. Klemm, Klemm 2013. ''Gold and Gold Mining in Ancient Egypt and Nubia. Geoarchaeology of the Ancient Gold Mining Sites in the Egyptian and Sudanese Eastern Deserts''.</ref> The harbour of Berenike is still being excavated by Sidebotham.<ref>Sidebotham ''et al''. 2008: 161–65, 171–75.</ref> See also Strabo, 17.1.45.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''<small>Name-reference</small>'''
|<small>Pliny the Elder, ''Naturalis Historia'' XXXIII.4.12</small>
|-
|'''<small>Modern reference</small>'''
|<small>Rackham 2003: 11</small>
|-
|'''<small>Location of the mine</small>'''
| -
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' Pliny describes the values the Romans had towards gold jewellery and mentions the ‘gold of handicraft... brooches and other articles of feminine finery like earrings’.
'''Comments:''' The Romans liked their luxury items, and jewellery became even more popular once gold and other precious minerals were mined on an industrial scale and became easier [and cheaper] to obtain.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''<small>Name-reference</small>'''
|<small>Pliny the Elder, ''Naturalis Historia'' VI.35</small>
|-
|'''<small>Modern reference</small>'''
|<small>Rackham 2003: 479-485</small>
|-
|'''<small>Location of the mine</small>'''
|Egypt, Arabian side of the Nile (Eastern Desert of Egypt)
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' The Red Sea Coast of Egypt runs from Meroë to Napata; Pliny mentions ''Aethiopia'', the Nile Valley and Meroë. These regions could be travelled very easily as there were many pockets of rainwater stored for travellers and, in passing; he also briefly mentions that the region contained a large amount of gold.
'''Comments:''' It seems from this paragraph that travelling the desert might have been easier then than it is now as there was plenty of water available. Or it could be referring to the many ''praesidia'' and ''hydreumata'' that provided water for travellers, mine and quarry workers and settlers in the region.<ref>Sidebotham 1996. ''Newly Discovered Sites in the Eastern'' Desert. Sidebotham, 2011. ''Berenike and the ancient maritime spice route.'' Sidebotham ''et al''. 2008: 303–28. Brun, Bülow-Jacobson, Cardon, Fournet, Leguilloux, Matelly, Reddé 2006. ''La route de Myos Hormos. L’armée romaine dans le désert Oriental d’Égypte''. ''Praesidia du desert de Bérénice, I'' (ed. H. Cuvigny). Krzywinski, Pierce 2001: 61–74, 149–52, on the influence of humans on desert fauna and flora.</ref> There are still some wells left but probably only a fraction of what was once available to the Romans.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''<small>Name-reference</small>'''
|<small>Pliny the Elder, ''Naturalis Historia'' XXXIII.21</small>
|-
|'''<small>Modern reference</small>'''
|<small>Rackham 1968: 51-61</small>
|-
|'''<small>Location of the mine</small>'''
|western Roman provinces (generic desciption)
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' In this long paragraph Pliny describes how both primary and secondary auriferous deposits were excavated and gives examples of where specific technique were used in his time. From the opening paragraph it is clear that Pliny did not believe in the story of the gold-digging ants: ‘Gold in our part of the world, not to speak of the Indian gold obtained from ants or the gold dug up by griffins in Scythia ….’ This indicates his interest in the facts and technology of mining. He describes three techniques to obtain gold: the first method is collecting the ‘detritus of rivers’, for which he gives the locations of mines in Tagus (Spain), Po (Italy), Maritza (''Thrace''), ''Sarabat'' (Asia Minor) and Ganges (India). The gold found in this manner is ‘thoroughly polished by the mere friction of the current’.
''People seeking gold begin by getting up'' segellum ''– that is, the name for earth that indicates the presence of gold. This is a pocket of sand, which is washed, and from the sediment left behind an estimate of the veins is made. Sometimes by a rare piece of luck a pocket is found immediately, on the surface of the earth, as occurred recently in Dalmatia when Nero was emperor, one yielding 50 pounds in weight of gold a day (AD 54–68). Gold found in this way in the surface crust is called'' talutium ''if there is also auriferous earth underneath. The otherwise dry, barren mountains of the Spanish provinces which produce nothing else are forced into fertility by the community.'' '''Photius (64–65) speaks of the ''selangei'', gold washers.[[Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum#%20ftn1|[1]]] This is still the same form of prospecting used in modern days. A potential reference to the satellite sites set up by the Romans to provide the miners with tools and food. ‘Barren mountains’ meant barren of gold'''
A <u>second method</u> involved ‘sinking shafts’ in auriferous primary deposits ‘in the fallen debris of mountains’.
''Gold dug up from shafts is called'' channelled ''or'' trenched gold''; it is found sticking to the grit of marble, not in the way in which it gleams in the lapis lazuli of the East and the stone of Thebes and in other precious stones, but sparkling in the folds of marble. These channels of veins wander to and fro along the sides of shafts, which give the gold its name; and the earth is held by wooden props. The substance dug out is crushed, washed, fired and ground to a soft powder. The powder from the mortar is called the'' scudes ''and the silver that comes out from the furnace the'' sweat''; the dirt thrown out of the smelting furnace as in the case of every metal is called'' scoria'', slag. In the case of gold the scoria is pounded and fired a second time; the crucibles for this are made of tasconium, which is white earth resembling clay. No other earth can stand the blast of air, fire, or the intensively hot material'' [that held the metal]''.'' '''Diodorus (3.12) also describes the stone as ‘marble’, primary deposit. Procedure for refining gold and silver (both seem to have been done in a similar manner)'''
The <u>third method</u> describes the sub-surface galleries, the primary deposits, with tunnels running over long distances under the mountains and mined by the light of oil lamps. Pliny remarks in a footnote that the length of time spent in a mine was determined by the ration of a lamp oil.
''The third method will have outdone the achievements of the Giants. The name for this class of mines is'' arrugiae''; cracks give way suddenly and crush the men who have been at work, so that it actually seems less venturesome to try to get pearls and purple fishes out of the depth of the sea – so much more dangerous have we made the earth! Consequently arches have been left at frequent intervals to support the weight of the mountain above. In both kinds of mining, masses of flint are encountered, which are burst asunder by means of fire and vinegar, though more often, as this method makes the tunnels suffocating through heat and smoke, they are broken to pieces with crushing machines carrying 150 lbs of iron, and the men carry the stuff on their shoulders, working night and day, each man passing them on to the next man in the dark, while only those at the end of the line see daylight. If the bed of flint seems too long, the miner follows along it and goes around it. And yet flint is considered comparatively easy work, as there is a kind of earth consisting of a sort of potter’s clay mixed with gravel, called'' gangadia'', which it is almost impossible to overcome.'' '''Sub-surface mining, pillars of the veins support the roof. Fire setting to break or crack it sufficiently to break the vein. Diodorus (3.13) and Photius (62-63) describe children used to carry the stones to the surface.'''
''They attack it with iron wedges and the hammer machines mentioned above; and it is thought to be the hardest thing that exists, except greed for gold, which is the most stubborn of all things. When the work is completely finished, beginning with the last, they cut through, at the tops, the supports of the arched roofs. A crack gives warning of a crash, and the only person who notices it is the sentinel on a pinnacle of the mountain. He, by shout and gesture, gives the order for the workmen to be called out, and himself at the same moment fled down from his pinnacle. The fractured mountain falls asunder in a wide gap, with a crash which it is impossible for human imagination to conceive, and likewise with an incredibly violent blast of air. The miners gaze as conquerors upon the collapse of Nature. And nevertheless, even now, there is no gold so far, nor did they know for certain there was any when they began digging; the mere hope of obtaining the coveted material was sufficient inducement for encountering such great dangers and expense.'' '''Use of metal tools. Reference to Roman greed, as mentioned before by other classical writers. The destruction of large parts of the deposit so they could reach the auriferous veins. If done manually this would take a much longer time. ''Ruinea montium'', where water tanks were breached to create high velocity ‘waterfalls’. The water ran into various manmade tunnels dug inside the deposit.[[Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum#%20ftn2|[2]]]'''
''Another equally laborious task involving even greater expense is the incidental operation of previously bringing streams along mountain heights, frequently over a distance of 100 miles for the purpose of washing away debris of the collapse'' [see above, the collapse of an exhausted mine]''; the channels made for this purpose are called'' corrugi'', a term derived, I believe, from'' conrivatio'', a uniting of streams of water. This also involves a thousand tasks; the dip of the fall must be steep, to cause a rush rather than a flow of water, and consequently it is brought from very high altitudes. Gorges and crevasses are bridged by aquaducts carried on masonry; at other places impassable rocks are hewn away and compelled to provide a position for hollowed troughs of timber. The workman hewing the rocks are suspended with ropes, so that spectators viewing the operations from a distance seem to see not so much a'' ''swarm of strange animals as a flight of birds. In the majority of cases they hang suspended in this way while taking the levels and marking out the lines for the route, and rivers are led by man’s agency to run where there is no place for a man to plant his footsteps. It spoils the operation of washing if the current of the stream carries mud along with it; an earthy sediment of this kind if called'' urium''. Consequently, they guide the flow over flint stones and pebbles, and avoid urium. At the head of the waterfall, on the brow of the mountains, reservoirs are excavated measuring 200ft each way and 10ft deep. In these there are left five sluices with apertures measuring about a yard each way, in order that when the reservoir is full the stopping barriers may be struck away and the torrent may burst out with such velocity as sweeping forward the broken rock. This is yet another task to perform on level ground. Trenches are excavated for the water to flow through – the Greek name for them means'' leads''; and these, which descend by steps, are floored with'' gorse ''– this is plant resembles rosemary, which is rough and holds back the gold – and the channels are carried on arches over steep pitches. Thus the earth carried along in the stream slides down into the sea, and owing to these causes the land of Spain encroaches a long way into the sea. The material drowned out at such enormous labour in the former kind of mining so as not to fill up the shafts, is in this latter process washed out.'' '''Hushing was used to break down the alluvial deposits – a highly technical engineering project for which it is thought the army was required because of their experience in building hydraulic installations. See appendix A on Las Médulas and Dolaucothi). When cutting leats out of the bedrock of the hills, the slope had to be just right so not to create stagnant water.'''
''The gold obtained by means of an'' arrugia ''does not have to be melted, but is pure gold straight away. In this process nuggets are found, and also in the shafts, weighing more than 10 pounds. They are called'' palagae'', or else'' palcurnae'', and the gold in very small grains,'' baluce''. The gorse is dried and burned and its ash is washed on a bed of grassy turf so that the gold is deposited on it. According to some accounts, Asturia and Callaecia and Lusitania produced in this way 20,000lbs in weight of gold a year, Asturia supplying the largest amount. Nor has there been in any other part of the world such a continuous production of gold for so many centuries. We have stated that by an old prohibiting decree of the senate, Italy is protected from exploitation; otherwise no country would have been more productive in metals, as well as in crops. There is extant a ruling of the censors relating to the gold mines of Victumulae in the territory of the Vercellae, which prohibited the farmers in receipt of public revenue from having mor''e ''than'' ''5,000 men engaged in the work.'' '''Use of ''gorse'' to separate the gold from the soil; see Strabo (11.2.19), See appendix A on Las Médulas and Dolaucothi; at Las Médulas the river got filled up and a lake was created. ''Lex sensorial'' restricted the number of people working at the mine by 5,000.[[Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum#%20ftn3|[3]]]'''
'''Comments:''' Some modern writers describe Pliny as the ultimate source on mining in the classical world, though not all scholars agree.[[Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum#%20ftn4|[4]]] The first method Pliny describes is panning for gold in the (fast) currents of local rivers, usually those coming down from the mountains. After collecting nuggets from the surface (dried-out river bed), this is the second oldest technique of prospecting for gold and is still widely used in rivers all over the world. Panning the gold particles in rivers sometimes leads to the outcropping vein located further upstream.
The second method he describes is open-cast mining (primary deposits) and hushing of alluvial or secondary deposits. The open-cast technique consists of digging trenches following veins along the surface. This practice was used nearly exclusively in Wadi Bakariya and Wadi Daghbag, Eastern Desert of Egypt (Chapter 6, Appendix A.2.). The deposits are usually shallow, though some sections go deeper underground; the description used by Pliny is ‘sinking shafts’.
The method known as hushing, which was used at Las Médulas, NW Spain, and Dolaucothi, S Wales (Appendix A.4.), was more complex and specialised. It required the continuous availability of large quantities of water, so was not applicable for desert areas such as in Egypt. Water was brought to tanks built on top of the sedimentary deposits via leats and canals from the river, which were dug out of the hill slopes. Once they were full the tanks were breached and water flushed down at high speed, taking the sediment with it. At the bottom of the sediment the fast-flowing water was directed via a system of canals to collect the larger debris. A local plant (''gorse'') was placed in these canals, in which the gold particles were captured, while the finer sand flushed away with the water. When the plants were saturated they were removed and either burned or dried to collect the gold. Pliny then describes refining the gold dust, explaining that it needed smelting to separate the gold from impurities. A similar account on smelting, with different details, is given by Diodorus Siculus (3.14).
The third method concerned full underground mining of primary deposits using long tunnels and galleries. Pliny describes how the miners had oil lamps attached to their heads to light the way, and stayed underground for the duration of their shift, or, if we are to believe older classical writers, until they died. Evidence of residency, however, has been found in sections of abandoned galleries or shafts where the miners had made themselves a comfortable resting (or temporary residential) area.
Finally, Pliny discusses the ''ruinea montium'', a technique still evidenced today at Las Médulas (Appendix A.3.). This was used to mine the larger alluvial (secondary) deposits, not just river banks. The miners dug long, underground connecting tunnels in the auriferous deposits but left only one entrance/exit. Then, similar to the hushing method, a tank was built at the entrance and filled with water. Once the tank was full and the tunnels finished, the tanks were breached and water rushed into the tunnels to saturate the lower levels. Because of the saturation of the lower echelons and the lack of exits, the water broke through the deposit and both water and broken sediment flushed down the mountain in rapid torrents.[[Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum#%20ftn5|[5]]]
As well as describing Roman technologies of mining different deposits and their geological circumstances, Pliny therefore gives details on washing and separating gold and gravel/sand. These techniques were used mainly in the western provinces as they were not appropriate for the dry, arid regions of some of the eastern provinces, such as the Eastern Desert of Egypt. One aspect of mining he does not describe is refining gold using furnaces to separate impurities from the metal (though he mentions this briefly in book XXXIV.47).
----[[Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum#%20ftnref1|[1]]] Forbes 1966: 111, ''segellum'' was viewed by the early prospectors as an indicator of something below the surface but they had no experience to predict what they were likely to find. It is some kind of a band of sand (disturbed by intrusive veins?).
[[Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum#%20ftnref2|[2]]] Forbes 1966: 112.
[[Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum#%20ftnref3|[3]]] Forbes 1966: 157–58, at ''Victumulae'' (near ''Vercellae'', Italy) the owners were not allowed to use more than 5,000 labourers per mine. It is thought these miners were the ''Salassi''. It seems that education was also encouraged in mining settlements; Strabo, ''Geography'', 4.6.7.
[[Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum#%20ftnref4|[4]]] Lewis, Jones 1970, this publication discusses Pliny’s description in detail. Healy 1989: 12; Bird 2001: 270–72 warns that Pliny’s terminology can be misunderstood and gives a modern interpretation of Pliny’s text.
[[Corpus Fontium Historiae Fodinarum#%20ftnref5|[5]]] Sánchez-Palencia, Fernández-Posse, Manzano, Orejas 1995: 81–82.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''<small>Name-reference</small>'''
|<small>Pliny the Elder, ''Naturalis Historia'' XXXIV.47</small>
|-
|'''<small>Modern reference</small>'''
|<small>Rackham 1968: 241</small>
|-
|'''<small>Location of the mine</small>'''
|Lusitania, ''Gallaecia''
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' Pliny describes the natural occurrence of lead and tin alloys in goldmines, called ''allutiæ'', found in the surface strata. Gold, lead and tin were separated by heat in furnaces.
'''Comments:''' It is clear that Pliny had a technological knowledge of the difference between secondary gold that was pure and primary gold which had to be smelted to separate the impurities.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''<small>Name-reference</small>'''
|<small>Pliny the Elder, ''Naturalis Historia'' XXXIV.74</small>
|-
|'''<small>Modern reference</small>'''
|<small>Eicholz 1971: 321</small>
|-
|'''<small>Location of the mine</small>'''
|Region of Lampsacus
|}
'''Description-Interpretation:''' Here Pliny describes the presence of gold in ''Lampsacus'' but gives no further details.
'''Comments:''' Often, when looked at as a whole, this type of comment can give an overall picture of mining and of the presence of gold during the Roman imperial era.
===Tacitus===
Line 554 ⟶ 1,025:
|<small>An unknown underground mine in the Eastern Desert of Egypt</small>
|}
<br>
'''Description-Interpretation:'''
{| class="wikitable collapsible"
Line 587 ⟶ 1,059:
| Metal tools are rare at mining sites
|}
<br>
'''Comments:''' Agatharchides’ account of the Eastern Desert of Egypt has been copied by Strabo (16.4.5–20, but Strabo had actually copied the information from Artemidorus of Ephesus), Diodorus (3.12–14) and Photius (59–66).<ref>Burstein 1989: 22.</ref> Burstein states that although Photius is the least well-known writer he gives the most accurate copy of Agatharchidus’ work. Diodorus’ copies are often more prosaic than factual. Strabo’s version does not mention gold mines; he only refers briefly to the topaz mines and appeared to be more interested in the various population groups living in and close to the desert (Strabo, 16.4.5–20).
| |||